Eco-Innovation: Applying the Woven Fabric from Dendrocalamus asper Fibers to Textile Product Design

At present, the world is focusing attention on the green economy in which manufacturers give precedence to reducing the environmental effects of their production processes. The textile industry is currently concerned about the development of fiber innovations that can be used in a sustainable and eco-textile industry [18]. Responsibility toward the environment can be demonstrated by processing a number of available natural materials into higher economic value. These are degradable materials, and this is thus regarded as a sustainable development guideline. Therefore, bamboo fibers are suitable for use because they are natural and local circular materials that can be easily found in local areas and provide several advantages, i.e., they are 1) low-cost, 2) lightweight, 3) circular, 4) biodegradable, and 5) renewable [19, 20]. Regarding development of materials from D. asper fiber, it is a highly efficient fiber that can be developed into textiles. It can also reduce imports of finished fibers from other countries, which will increase opportunities for competition in the Thai textile industry [21, 22]. Eco-fibers are usually called “sustainable yarns” as materials that are produced from nontoxic, circular, and degradable sources. For natural fibers mixed with other materials that can reduce environmental impacts, organic fibers and wastes can be processed together to create sustainable yarns with low environmental effects. These yarns are popular in the current textile industry [23, 24]. Recycled polyester from PET bottles is called r-PET. It can reduce the use of numerous types of polyester derived from pure petroleum [25]. Bamboo fibers and recycled polyester are widely used in textile industry because of their strength, durability, and low cost. They can also increase production capacity continuously and fiber sizes can be adjusted to be suitable for use [26-28].

Using eco-materials for textile product design is intended to reduce environmental impacts [19]. Developing textile innovations from D. asper fiber for processing into fiber for textile products is an approach that current entrepreneurs in the textile industry need to implement for development of their own products. Creating eco-innovations from D. asper fiber mixed with fiber from PET wastes conforms to the circular fashion model in accordance with the concept of circular economy with three goals, i.e., 1) to reduce waste from textile production processes, 2) to promote reuse, and 3) to implement ethical practices and create more sustainability for the world. These three goals are aimed at achievement of sustainability and eco-friendly qualities. The new fiber from this research contains properties of woven fabric in terms of strength, elasticity, and durability against mechanical properties. In this regard, testing the woven cloth from D. asper fiber mixed with recycled polyester from PET bottles would confirm the suitability of using this new woven cloth to be applied in accordance with international textile testing standards to create sustainable and eco-textile products. For the development of the fiber in this research, the methods included 1) analyzing and testing bamboo fiber for its antibacterial properties in accordance with textile standards, 2) assessing the physical properties of the cloth, and 3) studying the factors affecting textile product design from the new fiber obtained (Figure 1).

1.png

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

According to the test results of the antibacterial properties of 60-day-old D. asper fiber, i.e., obtained by testing the antibacterial properties using Staphylococcus aureus, a gram-positive bacteria that can be found on general fabrics and can cause infectious diseases of the skin [44], it was found that the fiber contained a low antibacterial property against Staphylococcus aureus (38.9%), as shown in Table 1. Also, it could not resist Klebsiella pneumonia, a gram-negative bacteria at all [45]. When compared with previous research using D. asper aged over 1 year under steam explosion to separate the fibers, it was found that the D. asper fiber obtained contained excellent antibacterial properties [46]. This research obtained the results of a low antibacterial property due to the use of young D. asper with low lignin. Furthermore, chemical extraction could eliminate a large amount of extractives and lignin, resulting in a lower antibacterial property as well as whiter and softer fibers. Studies [47, 48] have demonstrated that fiber preparation processes utilizing minimal or no chemical treatments are beneficial for maintaining antibacterial properties. Enzymatic fiber extraction has emerged as a promising process that warrants further investigation [49].

Due to the physical properties of yarn from bamboo fiber blended with r-PET by spinning these two types of fibers under the ratio of 30:70 by ring spinning [30], the yarn obtained possesses an exclusive texture. Because the bamboo fiber is larger than the r-PET, the texture of the yarn was rough because it was covered by bamboo fiber. Moreover, when the physical properties of yarn no. 10.4 were tested in the cotton count system (Ne), it contained tear strength at 15.67 newtons and elongation at break of 20.95% [30] as shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Antibacterial properties bamboo fiber

Table 2. Physical properties of the blended bamboo ring spinning yarn

t2.png
Yarn properties	Testing results
Yarn no. (Ne)	10.4
Tear strength (N)	15.67
Elongation at break (%)	20.95

Regarding the physical properties of yarn from bamboo fiber blended with r-PET by blended D. asper yarn with r-PET size 10/1 in the cotton count system (Ne) as the weft yarn, along with cotton yarn size 32/2 as the warp yarn in the cotton count system (Ne), both types of yarns were woven into the cloth by air-jet. Because the warp yarn was smaller than the weft yarn, the features of the weft were prominent, and because it was larger, it could cover the fabric surface efficiently, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. The fabric structure was woven with bamboo fiber blended with r-PET (microscope scan, 10x magnification)

Description	Fabric Structure
warp yarn: cotton yarn 32/2 Ne weft yarn: bamboo fiber blended with r-PET 10/1 Ne yarn density: 70 × 65 threads/inch	t3a.png	t3b.png

Regarding the tested physical properties of the yarn from bamboo fiber blended with r-PET, when the new woven fabric was analyzed for its quality, the tensile strength of the weft and warp yarns was equal to 473.8 and 1896.4, respectively, and the elongation of the weft and warp yarns was equal to 20.7% and 23.0%, respectively. Their tear strength was equal to 24.3% and 15.8 newtons, respectively. The fabric density of the weft and warp yarns was equal to 70 threads/inch and 65 threads/inch, respectively. Fabric thickness was equal to 0.286 mm., previous study [30] categorized as medium fabric thicknesses [50]. In general, fabrics are categorized into three types according to their thickness, i.e., 1) thin fabrics < 0.20 mm., 2) medium-thick fabrics between 0.23–0.46 mm., and 3) very thick fabrics > 0.47. Fabric weight was equal to 193.5 g/m², categorized into medium-weight fabrics [50].

Likewise, fabrics are generally categorized into five types by weight, i.e., 1) very light fabrics < 35 g/m², 2) light fabrics between 70–100 g/m², 3) medium-weight fabrics between 170–240 g/m², 4) fabrics with weight between 300–375 g/m², and 5) heavy-weight fabrics > 475 g/m². The woven fabric obtained contained more warp yarn than weft yarn because the first element was smaller than the latter one, resulting in a lower number of pieces per square inch. That was because its large size caused the rough texture of the fabric due to the weft yarn covering the warp. As a result, the color and texture of the woven fabric are unique.

For the effects of abrasion on the woven fabric from bamboo fiber blended with r-PET fibers according to the abrasion resistance testing, it was found that the fabric’s roughness was affected by abrasion. The amount of fiber pulled from the fabric texture increased when the abrasion was increased to over 10,000 cycles. There was a large amount of weft yarn appearing on the fibers as shown in Figure 2.

2.png

Figure 2. Photos of woven fabric from bamboo fiber mixed with recycled polyester: (a) before abrasion, (b) after 10,000 abrasion cycles (microscope scan, 10× magnification)

For the effects of pilling on the bamboo fiber woven fabric blended with r-PET fibers according to the testing, as shown in Figure 3, medium pilling was found (level 3). When the fabric was used, it revealed pilling resistance. Therefore, it is suitable for the production of clothes, bags, and shoes, which should possess pilling resistance.

3.png

Figure 3. Photos of pilling formation on woven fabric from bamboo fiber blended with recycled polyester after 30 minutes

For the study results of the factors affecting the textile product design and consumer satisfaction, it was found that consumer needs for utilizing D. asper fiber for eco-textile product design should consider the factors in the design steps, divided into two parts as follows.

Step 1: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) – All data underwent variable categorization by EFA. Data on consumer needs was collected to identify the variables affecting the needs related to utilization of D. asper fiber for eco-textile product design and consumer satisfaction. This was conducted to survey the variables and to specify the common factors in order to explain the relationships of all variables. The indicators were examined by 1) agreements and 2) the testing of the relationships and variable categorization [43].

1) Data verification was divided into four steps, i.e., 1) setting 22 variables, 2) setting the sample at a minimum of 345 participants [43], and 3) verifying the communality of each factor that could explain the factors, which should be > .61.

2) Based on the results of the data verification, it was found that the communalities of all factors were between .878–.610 (> .61). Clustering of the factors was found, which led to the explanations of the factors related to consumer needs for eco-textile products. KMO and Bartlett’s Test was equal to .827 (> .51).

3) Following analysis of the data collected from consumers for data categorization by surveying consumer satisfaction and needs and identifying the variables affecting purchase decision and satisfaction, the results were as follows.

KMO = .827 (> 0.50). All collected data revealed the perspectives on consumer needs regarding eco-textile products and could be processed using EFA (Chi-Square = 4793.756; df = 231) with statistical significance (Sig. = .000). The relationships between all variables were found, as seen in Table 4.

As shown in Table 5, there were 22 variables that could be categorized into four factors, with loading from high to low respectively as follows. Factor 1 was required the most, which could explain a variance at 40.002; followed by Factor 2 at 8.417, Factor 3 at 6.202, and Factor 4 at 5.527. All four factors could explain the variance of the variables at 60.418.

Table 4. KMO and bartlett’s test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy		.827	t4.png
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	4793.756
	Df	231
	Sig.	.000

Table 5. Total variance explained

Table 6. Loading of factor rotation by varimax, with factor loading ≥ 0.61

Table 7. Analyzing anti-image matrices (Measures of sampling adequacy: MSA)

To conclude, the related variables of all four factors were clarified as follows. Factor 1: Local Materials consisted of A15, A14, A13, and A12. Factor 2: Green Products consisted of A21, A19, A11, and A20. Factor 3: Healthiness consisted of A06, A07, and A05. Factor 4: Sustainability consisted of A09, A03, and A10. Out of the 22 observed variables, only 14 with the highest relationships to one another were focused on. The details are presented in Table 6.

As summarized in Table 7, the assessment results of all 14 variables that were clustered into four factors were applied to analyze consumer satisfaction with regard to their needs for utilizing the new fiber to design eco-textile products.

Consumers expressed their feelings of importance toward all four factors affecting their needs for utilizing the new textile products from high to low as follows. 1) They had high satisfaction with green products (x̄ = 4.225; S.D = 0.654), 2) high satisfaction with local materials (x̄ = 4.072; S.D = 0.697), 3) high satisfaction with materials (x̄ = 3.757; S.D = 0.663, and 4) moderate satisfaction with sustainability (x̄ = 3.158; S.D = 0.707). Thus, it can be concluded that their overall satisfaction with the four factors was high (x̄ = 3.803; S.D = 0.520), as in Table 8.

Table 8. Consumer feelings of importance toward all four factors (n=345)

Step 2: The results of integration for the design of eco-textile products from D. asper fiber, namely textile products from D. asper fiber blended with r-PET, were applied to the design of new products based on the factors in the conceptual framework, i.e., 1) local materials, 2) green products, 3) healthiness, and 4) sustainability, in order to produce home textiles that can be used in daily life. According to Mega Trends 2024, it can be inferred that the new textile products are eco-friendly [51] and present the features in terms of simple degradability, with lower environmental effects than those caused by PET wastes [52]. The designed prototypes of the eco-textile products were presented, inspired by a minimalist style reflecting simplicity and ease of use with no need to rely on unnecessary items in daily life [53] (Figure 4).

4.png

Figure 4. (a) mood board, (b) sketch design, (c) textile products

5.png

Figure 5. The prototypes of eco-textile products based on the concept of minimalism

Textiles were tailored and produced into different products for distribution of eco-textiles based on a minimalist style (Figure 5).

For the evaluation results of satisfaction with the new textile products, community enterprises that produced the new fiber mixed with polyester and processed it into the eco-cloth for producing clothing, bags, hats, and shoes distributed these products to consumers. Subsequently, data on consumer satisfaction was collected after their use (Figure 6).

6.png

Figure 6. Presentation of innovative textile products available for purchase at the Crafts Bangkok 2024 event in Thailand

According to the results in Table 9, consumers had high satisfaction with the prototypes of the textile products made from D. asper fiber blended with r-PET (x̄ = 4.235; S.D. = 0.472). Their satisfaction can be arranged in order as follows according to the four factors. 1) They had a high level of satisfaction with sustainability (x̄ = 4.407; S.D. = 0.496). 2) They had a high level of satisfaction with healthiness (x̄ = 4.269; S.D = 0.627). 3) They had a high level of satisfaction with green products (x̄ = 4.174; S.D. = 0.612). 4) They had a high level of satisfaction with local materials (x̄ = 4.091; S.D. = 0.610).

Table 9. Consumer satisfaction with the prototypes of textile products from D. asper fiber mixed with recycled polyester

When considering the data distribution with normality testing of all 353 data sets under evaluation of the four dimensions, i.e., 1) local materials, 2) green products, 3) healthiness, and 4) sustainability, it was considered as “normality not serious” because the data obtained contained neither too much skewness nor kurtosis to accept it due to there being > 200 data sets.

The analysis results of the relationships between the independent variables (X) and the dependent variable (Y) were as follows.

1) Residual mean was equal to 0, with normal distribution. Thus, the data was under the normal distribution line.

2) Both the independent variables and the dependent variable had linear relationships.

3) The variables had equal variance assumption. According to the scatter plot, data was arranged in a band, inclining from the left or right corner. No data cluster was found.

With regard to all four independent variables, i.e., 1) local materials, 2) green products, 3) healthiness, and 4) sustainability, parallel to the dependent variable, i.e., consumer satisfaction with the new textile products, the value of model summary test was found. More specifically, the four independent variables could predict the dependent variable at 84.7% (Table 10).

According to the analysis of variance (ANOVA), F = 481.643 and statistical significance (Sig) = .000. This implies that the multiple regression equation contained the facts as the phenomena to be studied (Table 11).

All four factors had significant relationships (p < 0.01), with correlation coefficients between .680–.793. The variables can be arranged in order from high to low correlation coefficient, i.e., 1) green products, 2) local materials, 3) sustainability, and 4) healthiness (Table 12).

All four factors consisted of green products (β=.310, t=13.252, P-value=.000), sustainability (β=.298, t=11.471, P-value=.000), healthiness (β=.187, t=9.497, P-value=.000), and local materials (β=.154, t=6.391, P-value=.000). They significantly affected consumer satisfaction with the prototypes of textile products made from D. asper fiber blended with r-PET (p < .01). The raw score of regression equation was $\begin{aligned} & \hat{y}=.249+.154\left(X_1\right)+.310\left(X_2\right)+.187\left(X_3\right)+ .298\left(X_4\right)\end{aligned}$. The standardized score of the regression equation was $Z=.196\left(X_1\right)+.394\left(X_2\right)+.244\left(X_3\right)+.307\left(X_4\right)$, as seen in Table 13.

Table 10. Relationship between the independent variables (X) and the dependent variable (Y)

Independent Variables (X)	t10a.png	Dependent Variable (Y)
1) Local materials, 2) green products, 3) healthiness and 4) sustainability	t10_b.png	Consumer satisfaction with the prototypes of textile products made from D. asper fiber blended with r-PET.
84.7% (R Square=.847; R = .920; Adjusted R Square= .845)

Table 11. ANOVA

Table 12. Correlation coefficient of the factors affecting consumer satisfaction

Table 13. The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis

** p < .01

Consumer satisfaction with the prototype textile products manufactured from bamboo fiber blended with recycled polyester fiber aligns with consumer priorities, particularly their primary concern for green product characteristics, specifically environmental friendliness. Bamboo is considered a renewable resource that can be cultivated and grown rapidly with low cultivation costs while producing high-performance fibers [54, 55]. Bamboo is abundant in Thailand and represents a highly sustainable alternative material that can effectively substitute synthetic fiber products. The woven fabric produced from bamboo fiber blended with recycled polyester fiber is biodegradable, thus contributing to the reduction of waste and air pollution [30].

The environmentally friendly production process aligns with carbon footprint reduction goals and enhances competitiveness in the circular economy, following the global environmental conservation trends throughout the 21^st century [56]. The research outcomes serve as a prototype model that bridges sustainable innovation between the fashion textile industry and consumer demands in the green market. This supports the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, all contributing to creating a more sustainable future for global society.

The results of testing the properties of the new woven fabric revealed the following, i.e., low antibacterial property against Staphylococcus aureus, 2) white and soft bamboo fiber, 3) a rough texture of the yarn as its unique characteristic from D. asper fiber mixed with recycled polyester under the ratio of 30:70, and 4) the woven fabric from the new yarn possesses durability and unique characteristics from the fiber.

According to the results of designing the new textile products, four factors were required, i.e., green products, local materials, materials, and sustainability. These can facilitate other designers who intend to use bamboo fiber mixed with recycled polyester for designing new forms and styles of eco-textile products.

According to the results of consumer satisfaction with the new textile products, consumers had high satisfaction, arranged from high to low, i.e., sustainability, healthiness, green products, and local materials. When the results were applied to analysis of the relationships of the four factors, consumer satisfaction could be explained at 84.7%. The designed new textile products in this research can support further development of eco-textile products from eco-materials in Thailand and worldwide. The research also suggests the sustainable development guideline by introducing a circular production process of D. asper fiber mixed with recycled polyester. The final results of this research can help to develop sustainability in Thailand’s rural communities in terms of a sustainable economy, eco-friendly qualities, and occupational security.