OPEN ACCESS
The connection between tourism development and the natural environment is more intense in outdoor sport tourism than in many other forms of tourism. Natural settings (space), sport activities undertaken and the motivations of the people who participate in them interact to create sport tourism experiences. Tourist safety and security are also proved to be important elements of a tourist experience and it seems that sport tourists may be more sensitive to safety issues than non-sport tourists. This paper therefore aims to analyse the importance of the natural environment and safety and security issues, as constitute event business model elements, in providing sport tourism experiences. The natural setting is also examined as a motivation to participate in sport tourism travel. On the basis of 464 questionnaires gath- ered from active participants of 16 small-scale sport events in four different outdoor sports, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on motivational statements and revealed a conceptually clear seven- factor structure. One of them, titled ‘Nature’, was the second most important motivational dimension for participants but differences between particular sports were considerable. In terms of business model elements included in the survey, participants gave high importance to all elements related to the natural environment and safety and security. Scenic destination, scenic and interesting course, course safety and event safety were the most important elements of event business models for participants in all four sports. Environmental management and proper implementation of security and crowd control measures were also singled out as important event processes. However, results of ANOVA indicate statistically significant differences between the sports in seven out of nine business model elements. These findings shed some light on the managerial aspects of sport tourism practice, helping managers to better serve sports and tourism needs at a particular event and in the destination.
business model, event sport tourism, natural environment, safety and security.
[1] Gammon, S. & Robinson, T., Sport and tourism: a conceptual framework. Journal of Sport Tourism, 4(3), pp. 11–18, 1997. https://doi.org/10.1080/10295399708718632
[2] Gibson, H., Sport tourism: a critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review,
1(1), pp. 45–76, 1998. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(98)70099-3
[3] Glyptis, S., Sport and Tourism in Western Europe, British Travel Education Trust, London, 1982.
[4] Weed, M. & Bull, C., Sport Tourism: Participants, policy and providers, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2009.
[5] Prahalad, C.K. & Ramaswamy, V., Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), pp. 5–14, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1002/dir.20015
[6] Perić, M., Vitezić, V. & Mekinc, J., Conceptualising innovative business models for sustainable sport tourism. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 11(3), pp. 469–482, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V11-N3-469-482
[7] Morgan, M., Elbe, J. & Curiel, J.E., Has the experience economy arrived? the views of destination managers in three visitor-dependent areas. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(2), pp. 201–216, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.719
[8] Kaplanidou, K. & Vogt, C., The meaning and measurement of a sport event experience among active sport tourists. Journal of Sport Management, 24(5), pp. 544–566, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.24.5.544
[9] Klaus, P. & Maklan, S., Bridging the gap for destination extreme sports – a model of sports tourism customer experience. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13–14), pp. 1341–1365, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2011.624534
[10] Scolozzi, R., Schirpke, U., Detassis, C., Abdullah, S. & Gretter, A., Mapping alpine landscape values and related threats as perceived by tourists. Landscape Research, 40(4), pp. 451–465, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2014.902921
[11] Bastian, O., Stein, C., Lupp, G., Behrens, J., Renner, C. & Grunewald, K., The appreciation of nature and landscape by tourism service providers and visitors in the Ore Mountains (Germany). Landscape Online, 41, 1–23, 2015. https://doi.org/10.3097/LO.201541
[12] Shi, L., Zhao, H., Li, Y., Ma, H., Yang, S. & Wang, H., Evaluation of Shangri-La County’s tourism resources and ecotourism carrying capacity. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 22(2), pp. 103–109, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2014.927018
[13] Navaro Jurado, E. et al. Carrying capacity assessment for tourist destinations. Meth- odology for the creation of synthetic indicators applied in a coastal area. Tourism Management, 33(6), pp. 1337–1346, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.12.017
[14] Otto, J.E. & Ritchie, J.R.B., The service experience in tourism. Tourism Management,
17(3), pp. 165–174, 1996. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(96)00003-9
[15] Mohan, L.J., Effect of destination image on attendance at sporting events. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10(3), pp. 157–170, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1057/thr.2010.1
[16] Chen, N. & Funk, D.C., Exploring destination image, experience and revisit intention: a comparison of sport and non-sport tourist perceptions. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15(3), pp. 239–259, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2010.513148
[17] Getz, D. & McConnell, A., Serious sport tourism and event travel careers. Journal of Sport Management, 25(4), pp. 326–338, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.25.4.326
[18] Buning R.J. & Gibson H, Exploring the trajectory of active sport event travel careers: a social worlds perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 30(3), pp. 265–281, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0213
[19] Hinch, T. & Higham, J., Sport Tourism Development, Channel View Publications, Clevedon, 2004.
[20] Han, J.H., Nelson, C.M. & Kim, C., Proenvironmental behavior in sport event tourism: roles of event attendees and destinations. Tourism Geographies, 17(5), pp. 719–737, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2015.1084037
[21] Bouchet, P., Lebrun, A.M. & Auvergne, S., Sport tourism consumer experiences: a comprehensive model. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 9(2), pp. 127–140, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080410001732578
[22] IOC Guide to Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development, 6 2006; International Olympic Committee. Available at www.olympic.org/assets/importednews/documents/ en_report_1112.pdf (accessed 11 October 2015).
[23] MacIntosh, E., Apostolis, N. & Walker, M., Environmental responsibility: internal mo- tives and customer expectations of a winter sport provider. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 18(2), pp. 99–116, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2013.838145
[24] Trendafilova, S., Babiak, K. & Heinze, K., Corporate social responsibility and envi- ronmental sustainability: why professional sport is greening the playing field. Sport Management Review, 16(3), pp. 298–313, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2012.12.006
[25] Högström, C., Rosner, M. & Gustafsson, A., How to create attractive and unique cus- tomer experiences; an application of Kano’s theory of attractive quality to recreational tourism. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 28(4), pp. 385–402, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1108/02634501011053531
[26] Hallmann, K., Feiler, S., Müller, S. & Breuer, C., The interrelationship between sport activities and the perceived winter sport experience. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 17(2), pp. 145–163, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2012.729905
[27] Schmitz, M.F., de Aranzabal, I. & Pineda, F.D., Spatial analysis of visitor preferences in the outdoor recreational niche of Mediterranean cultural landscapes. Environmental Conservation, 34(04), pp. 300–312, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892907004249
[28] Zhang, Y., Li, W.R. & Su, Q., Does spatial layout matter to theme park tourism carrying capacity? Tourism Management, 61, pp. 82–95, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.01.020
[29] Gangaas, K.E., Kaltenborn, B.P. & Andreassen, H.P., Environmental attitudes associated with large-scale cultural differences, not local environmental conflicts. Environmental Conservation, 42(1), pp. 41–50, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892914000125
[30] Xu, F. & Fox, D., Modelling attitudes to nature, tourism and sustainable development in national parks: a survey of visitors in China and the UK. Tourism Management, 45, pp. 142–158, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.03.005
[31] Kulczycki, C. & Halpenny, E.A., Sport cycling tourists’ setting preferences, appraisals and attachments. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 19(2), pp. 169–197, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2015.1070741
[32] Moore, R., Richardson, M. & Corkill, C., Identity in the “road racing capital of the world”: heritage, geography and contested spaces. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 9(3), pp. 228–245, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2014.904318
[33] Aicher, T.J. & Brenner, J., Individuals’ motivation to participate in sport tourism: a self-determination theory perspective. International Journal of Sport Management Recreation & Tourism, 18(d), pp. 56–81, 2015. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-18d
[34] Pomfret, G. & Bramwell, B., The characteristics and motivational decisions of out- door adventure tourists: a review and analysis. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(14), pp. 1447–1478, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2014.925430
[35] Weed, M., Progress in sports tourism research? a meta-review and exploration of futures. Tourism Management, 30(5), pp. 615–628, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.02.002
[36] Sung, H.H., Classification of adventure travelers: behavior, decision making, and target markets. Journal of Travel Research, 42(4), pp. 343–356, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287504263028
[37] Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., Funk, D. & Giovani, C., Segmenting winter sport tour- ists by motivation: the case of recreational skiers. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18(5), pp. 480–499, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368620902950048
[38] Hodeck, A. & Hovemann, G., Motivation of active sport tourists in a German high- land destination – a cross-seasonal comparison. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 30(3–4), pp. 335–348, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2016.1235988
[39] Fowler, D.C., Lauderdale, M.K., Goh, B.K. & Yuan, J., Safety concerns of internation- al shoppers in Las Vegas. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6(3), pp. 238–249, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1108/17506181211246384
[40] Seabra, C., Dolnicar, S., Abrantes, J.L. & Kastenholz, E., Heterogeneity in risk and safety perceptions of international tourists. Tourism Management, 36, pp. 502–510, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.09.008
[41] Ghaderi, Z., Saboori, B. & Khoshkam, M., Does security matter in tourism demand?. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(6), pp. 552–565, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1161603
[42] Flash Eurobarometer 392: Preferences of Europeans towards tourism – TNS Political & Socia; European Commission, 2014, available at www.ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/ publicopinion/flash/fl_392_en.pdf (accessed 19 December 2015).
[43] George, R., Visitor perceptions of crime-safety and attitudes towards risk: the case of Table Mountain National Park, Cape Town. Tourism Management, 31(6), pp. 806–815, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.08.011
[44] Ko, Y.J., Zhang, J., Cattani, K. & Pastore, D., Assessment of event quality in major spec- tator sports. Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, 21(3), pp. 304–322, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1108/09604521111127983
[45] Soita, P.W., Measuring perceived service quality using SERVQUAL: a case study of the Uganda health and fitness sector. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(5), pp. 261–271, 2012.
[46] Hallmann, K., Kaplanidou, K. & Breur, C., Event image perceptions among active and passive sport tourists at marathon races. International Journal of Sport Marketing & Sponsorship, 12(1), pp. 37–52, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-12-01-2010-B005
[47] Roche, S., Spake, D.F. & Joseph, M., A model of sporting event tourism as econom- ic development. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, 3(2), pp. 147–157, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1108/20426781311325078
[48] Williams, A.P. & Soutar, G.N., Close to the edge: critical issues for adventure tourism operators. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 10(3), pp. 247–262, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941660500309614
[49] Shafer, S.M., Smith, H.J. & Linder, J.C., The power of business models. Business Horizons, 48(3), pp. 199–207, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2004.10.014
[50] Zott, C., Amit, R. & Massa, L., The business model: recent developments and future research. Journal of Management, 37(4), pp. 1019–1042, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311406265
[51] Wirtz, B.W., Pistoia, A., Ullrich, S. & Göttel, V., Business models: origin, development and future research perspectives. Long Range Planning, 49(1), pp. 36–54, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2015.04.001
[52] Rayman-Bacchus, L. & Molina A., Internet-based tourism services: business issues and trends. Futures, 33(7), pp. 589–605, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-3287(01)00003-9
[53] Ping, Y., A study on innovations of e-business models for Chinese tourism industry. 2010 International Forum on Information Technology and Applications, Kunming, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1109/ifita.2010.268
[54] Kabir, M.A., Jahan, K., Adnan, Md. N. & Khan, N., Business model of e-tourism for developing countries. International Journal of Computer and Information Technology, 3(1), pp. 30–34, 2012.
[55] Runfola, A., Rosati, M. & Guercini, S., New business models in online hotel distribu- tion: emerging private sales versus leading IDS. Service Business, 7(2), pp. 183–205, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11628-012-0150-1
[56] Mosleh, A., Nosratabadi, S. & Bahrami, P., Recognizing the business models types in tourism agencies: utilizing the cluster analysis. International Business Research, 8(2), pp. 173–180, 2015. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v8n2p173
[57] Perić, M. & Wise, N., Understanding the delivery of experience: conceptualising busi- ness models and sports tourism, assessing two case studies in Istria, Croatia. Local Economy, 30(8), pp. 1000–1016, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269094215604131
[58] Johnson, M.W., Christensen, C.M. & Kagermann, H., Reinventing your business model. Harvard Business Review, 86(12), pp. 50–59, 2008.
[59] Coles, T., Warren, N., Borden, D.S. & Dinan, C., Business models among SMTEs: identifying attitudes to environmental costs and their implications for sustainable tour- ism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(4), 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1221414
[60] Perić, M., Wise, N. & Dragičević, D., Suggesting a service research agenda in sport tourism: working experience(s) into business models. Sport, Business and Manage- ment: An International Journal, 7(1), pp. 58–76, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-09-2015-0031
[61] Stubbs, W. & Cocklin, C., Conceptualizing a “Sustainability Business Model”. Organization & Environment, 21(2), pp. 103–127, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026608318042
[62] Schaltegger, S., Hansen, E.G. & Lüdeke-Freund, F., Business models for sustainabil- ity: origins, present research, and future avenues. Organization & Environment, 29(1), pp. 3–10, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026615599806
[63] Hoque, F., The alignment effect. Upper Saddle River, New York: Prentice Hall, 2002.
[64] Nair, S., Paulose, H., Palacios, M. & Tafur, J., Service orientation: effectuating business model innovation. The Service Industries Journal, 33(9–10), pp. 958–975, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2013.746670
[65] Morris, T. & Rogers, H., Measuring motives for physical activity. Sport and Chance of Life: Proceedings of 2004 International Sport Science Congress, pp. 242–250, 2004.