Into Inclusive Urban Spaces: Insights from User Behavior and Perceptions in Cagayan de Oro City, the Philippines

Urban green public space (UGPS) are essential components of sustainable urbanism because they provide ecological services, support recreation, and foster social inclusion. However, sustainability depends not only on the amount of green space but also on its design, accessibility, and capacity to accommodate diverse users. Scholars emphasize that green spaces act as social infrastructures linking ecological health with community vitality, influencing physical activity, mental health, and civic engagement [1, 2]. The challenge for rapidly urbanizing cities, therefore, lies in maintaining spatial balance, ensuring that UGPS remain equitably distributed and inclusive despite pressures from densification and land conversion.

Although urban greening efforts are more prevalent in developed nations, similar studies are needed in the Global South, particularly in Asia, to address inequities in the availability, accessibility, and quality of UGPS [3, 4]. In these regions, where rapid urbanization and social inequality converge, access to quality green spaces is often produce uneven access, with disparities observed between income groups, neighborhoods, and social classes [5, 6]. As built-up areas intensify, green space provision often declines, resulting in unequal exposure to environmental and social benefits [7]. Ensuring that UGPS remain equitably distributed and socially inclusive is therefore critical for sustainable urban development, particularly in rapidly growing cities across the Global South. Understanding the underlying processes driving these inequities is essential to inform effective urban planning strategies.

In response, urban scholars and practitioners advocate placemaking, a participatory, design-oriented approach that transforms ordinary spaces into meaningful places [8, 9]. Placemaking recognizes the interplay between form, function, and experience, creating spaces that are not only accessible but also sociable and emotionally resonant [10, 11]. Aesthetic and architectural expressions can reinforce urban identity [12], while place-based experiences extend beyond function to encompass cultural and touristic value [13]. Collectively, these perspectives frame UGPS as dynamic environments that connect ecology, culture, and community. Ensuring spatial equality, defined as the fair distribution of green spaces relative to population and need, is therefore central to sustainable and inclusive urban planning.

Although numerous studies have examined spatial accessibility to UGPS and its influence on visitation patterns, much of the literature has focused on objective measures of access, such as proximity, distance, and service coverage. Conversely, studies on perceived park quality have largely emphasized user satisfaction and place experiences independent of broader accessibility conditions. Consequently, the combined influence of objective spatial accessibility and users' perceptions of park quality on park use behavior remains insufficiently understood. This gap is particularly evident in rapidly urbanizing cities of the Global South, including the Philippines, where empirical evidence integrating spatial and perceptual dimensions of UGPS use remains limited.

To address this gap, the present study examines how spatial accessibility and perceived park quality jointly shape user behavior and experiences in UGPS in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines. By integrating a citywide spatial accessibility assessment with survey-based measures of perceived park quality, the study investigates how accessibility and perceptions of sociability, comfort and image, uses and activities, and access and linkages relate to visit duration and visit frequency. The findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of UGPS utilization and provide evidence to inform placemaking strategies that promote equitable, accessible, and socially inclusive UGPS.

3.1 Conceptual framework

This study conceptualizes users’ engagement with UGPS through a framework linking greenspace exposure, perceived place quality, and inclusiveness (Figure 1). Greenspace exposure reflects both spatial accessibility and users’ actual behavior (frequency and duration of visits), representing the opportunity and extent of contact with UGPS. Exposure influences perceived place quality, captured through four placemaking dimensions: sociability, access and linkages, uses and activities, and comfort and image. These perceptions shape how users evaluate the experience and functionality of UGPS. Finally, inclusive engagement outcomes are examined by comparing exposure and perceptions across demographic and socio-economic groups, reflecting how different populations benefit from UGPS. Overall, the framework positions exposure as a driver of perception, and perception as a pathway to inclusive and equitable participation in UGPS.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework linking greenspace exposure, perceived place quality, and inclusive engagement, adapted from previous studies and planning frameworks [11, 33]

3.2 Study area

The study was conducted in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, one of the highly urbanized cities considered as the primary entryway to Northern Mindanao and has been the region's center for commercial, industrial, and political growth. The ecology of the city is a combination of coastal and highland landscapes. The city is characterized by more extensive edge and outlying expansion compared to other metropolitan centers like Manila and Cebu, resulting in a less compact and more spatially fragmented urban form [34]. Cagayan de Oro’s rapid horizontal growth presents a more complex environment for integrating green spaces into the urban fabric. Its expansion has largely followed an east–west corridor along the coastline, with new edge patches concentrated west of the Cagayan River and outlying development spreading toward the southern interior. This pattern of spatial dispersion offers an ideal setting to examine how spatial equality interacts with residents’ perceptions and usage behavior, providing insights into the challenges and opportunities of fostering inclusive and equitable green space experiences amid rapid urban growth.

3.3 Data collection and sources

3.3.1 Primary data

Primary data were collected through on-site convenience sampling at the four UGPS. A total of 417 respondents were surveyed on-site across the four UGPS between July and September 2023, covering both weekday and weekend periods to capture a broad cross-section of users. Although non-probabilistic, this sampling approach was appropriate for the dynamic flow of park visitors and allowed the survey to reflect actual user presence during data collection. To reduce potential sampling bias, surveys were collected across multiple park locations, during both weekdays and weekends, and at different times of day, including peak visitation periods.

Sociodemographic profile, including age, gender, and income, was recorded and subsequently examined to assess the diversity of respondents across survey locations and periods (Table A1). However, because convenience sampling was employed, the sample cannot be assumed to be statistically representative of the broader urban population or individuals who do not use UGPS. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted as reflecting the experiences and perceptions of surveyed UGPS users rather than all city residents. Participation was voluntary, informed consent was obtained prior to participation, responses were collected anonymously, and no personally identifiable information was recorded in accordance with standard ethical research practices.

The user survey was conducted across four major public parks in Cagayan de Oro City, Gaston Park, Plaza Divisoria, Vicente de Lara Park, and Rio de Oro Boulevard, each representing a distinct typology and function. Gaston Park, located in the historic civic core, features open lawns and a central fountain that attract visitors for cultural and community activities. Plaza Divisoria, a linear park embedded within a commercial district, functions as a vibrant pedestrian zone for students, workers, and families. Vicente de Lara Park, shaded by mature trees near the Provincial Capitol, serves as a quiet refuge for employees and nearby residents. Meanwhile, Rio de Oro Boulevard, a newer riverside park along the Cagayan River, offers wide walkways and viewing decks frequented by joggers, cyclists, and families.

A structured questionnaire was developed to operationalize the study’s conceptual framework by capturing respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics and their perceptions of UGPS performance across four placemaking dimensions: access and linkages, comfort and image, uses and activities, and sociability. The instrument was adapted from established public-space quality frameworks [35, 36] and consisted mainly of closed-ended items. The questionnaire included three components relevant to this analysis: (1) demographic and socio-economic characteristics; (2) park-use behavior, including purpose of visit and frequency of use; and (3) perceived UGPS quality, assessed using a Likert-scale instrument across four placemaking dimensions—access and linkages, comfort and image, uses and activities, and sociability (Table 1). These sections collectively enabled the questionnaire to align empirical measures with the study’s conceptual framework.

Perception items were aggregated into four latent constructs, sociability, access and linkages, uses and activities, and comfort and image, providing a multidimensional measure of park performance aligned with the study’s emphasis on inclusive and user-centered green space planning.

Table 1. Likert scale interpretation and mean score classification

3.3.2 Secondary data

The analysis used secondary data obtained from the City Planning Office. The index reflects the relative sufficiency of UGPS access by incorporating population distribution, 300-meter service catchments, and buffer-based travel distances. To enable grid-based analysis, a uniform fishnet grid with 100 m × 100 m resolution was used, resulting in 7,164 grid cells [37, 38]. The centroid of each grid cell was used as the representative spatial unit for analyzing UGPS accessibility and spatial autocorrelation. This 100-meter resolution was selected to reflect the fine-scale urban variation typical in densely built environments. The fishnet centroids served as reference points for associating spatial characteristics with each grid cell.

Spatial accessibility to UGPS was assessed using the buffer-based two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method. A 300-m Euclidean buffer was generated around each UGPS to represent a walkable catchment area. Residential grid cells located within the buffer were considered to have access to the corresponding UGPS. Population estimates were assigned to each residential grid cell, and the total population within each catchment was used to calculate a supply-to-demand ratio. This is expressed in Eq. (1), where R_j is the supply-demand ratio for UGPS j; S_j as supply (area of UGPS j), P_k as the population in residential grid cell k within the buffer; d_kj is the distance from the grid cell to UGPS j; and d₀ is the catchment threshold.

$R_j=S_j / \sum_{k \in\left\{d_{k j} \leq d_0\right\}} P_k$          (1)

This ratio was distributed to all intersecting grid cells, with overlapping values from multiple UGPS summed to produce an accessibility score (A_i) for each cell. Accordingly, the accessibility score of location i is expressed in Eq. (2) as follows:

$A_i^F=\sum_{i \in\left\{ {Dist }(i, j) \leq d_0\right)} R_j$          (2)

The resulting spatial surface captures walkable UGPS accessibility across the urban landscape, enabling identification of areas with insufficient green space provision. These scores then serve as the basis for evaluating the spatial equality of UGPS access across the study area.

The accessibility to the UGPS in each residential area was evaluated using Eq. (3) to observe their relative accessibility index (E_i) level, where R_j is the supply-demand ratio and max (R_j) is the maximum supply-demand ratio between UGPS and population demand;  is the accessibility score for each residential unit. The classification used in this study is adapted from related research with a six-level typology based on the alignment between UGPS supply and population demand (Table 2) [39]. To provide an overall measure of distributional inequality the Gini coefficient was calculated using the grid-level accessibility scores derived from 2SFCA.

$E_i=\frac{\max \left(R_j\right)}{\max \left(A_i\right)} \times A_i$          (3)

Table 2. Interpretation of six levels of the UGPS accessibility index

3.4 Data analysis and methods

A two-step factor score regression (FSR) approach was used to examine how spatial accessibility influences perceived place quality and how these perceptions in turn shape visiting behavior, while considering demographic variations. The approach was selected because the study involved validated latent perception constructs, objective spatial accessibility measures, and categorical behavioral outcomes (visit duration and visit frequency). Although Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) can simultaneously estimate measurement and structural relationships, integrating multiple latent constructs with multinomial behavioral outcomes and additional observed covariates would substantially increase model complexity and estimation requirements. Furthermore, preliminary model estimation encountered convergence difficulties due to the limited number of park-level units represented in the dataset. Therefore, a two-step FSR approach was adopted as a more parsimonious and robust alternative. By separating the measurement and structural components, FSR reduces sensitivity to model misspecification, improves estimation stability, and facilitates the incorporation of validated latent constructs into subsequent regression analyses [40]. This method involves two main components, factor score extraction and subsequent regression analysis or path modeling [40, 41].

Following the two-step approach are the (1) measurement model through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and generated factor scores, (2) used regression-based path modelling to test hypothesized relationships among spatial accessibility, perceived quality, and user behavior (Figure 2) [42].

Figure 2. Path analysis model of UGPS accessibility, perceptions, and user behavior

Step 1 involved estimating the measurement model through CFA. Model adequacy was assessed using threshold values of factor loadings 0.5–0.7, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) ≥ 0.90, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) ≤ 0.08, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) ≤ 0.08 [43, 44], internal consistency, confirming satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity. Items with weak loadings were removed, and standardized factor scores were generated for subsequent regression analyses. Model diagnostics, including likelihood-ratio tests, Pseudo R², and multicollinearity checks (VIF < 5), were employed to ensure robustness. The validated latent constructs were (Access & Linkages, Comfort & Image, Uses & Activities, Sociability) transformed into standardized factor scores. These continuous variables represent respondents’ overall perceptions of UGPS quality and were retained as predictors in the multinomial logistic regression (MLR) models.

Step 2 is regression-based path modeling that assessed the structural pathways linking spatial accessibility, perceived quality, and user behavior. Firstly, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were estimated to test whether park-level spatial accessibility predicted each perceived quality dimension (Path A). This established whether objective spatial equality translated into differences in perceived performance.

Subsequently, two multinomial logistic regression models were then estimated to examine how spatial accessibility, perceived quality, and socio-demographic characteristics jointly influence park use behavior (Paths B and C). The first model predicted the duration of park visits (short < 2 hours, medium 2–4 hours, long > 4 hours as reference), while the second predicted visit frequency (light, moderate, heavy as reference). Predictor variables included the four perception factor scores, the spatial accessibility index, and socio-demographic characteristics. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were computed, and overall model fit was evaluated with likelihood-ratio chi-square tests and Nagelkerke pseudo-R².

Although the Test of Parallel Lines for the time spent variable yielded a non-significant result (χ² = 24.094, df = 19, p = 0.193), indicating that the proportional odds assumption was satisfied, the behavioral categories in this outcome (“less than 2 hours,” “2–4 hours,” and “more than 4 hours”) may not reflect uniform transitions in user behavior. Short, medium, and long visits can represent qualitatively different patterns of park use rather than successive levels along a single underlying scale. The MLR category distributions are provided in Table A2. Therefore, a MLR model was employed instead of an ordinal approach. Although ordinal logistic regression was statistically permissible, MLR allows category-specific estimation by treating the outcome categories as nominal, thereby capturing distinct behavioral patterns without assuming that predictor effects are constant across thresholds. The highest category (“stayed more than four hours”) was selected as the reference group, representing the desired behavioral outcome of prolonged park engagement. This specification enables clearer interpretation of factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of shorter stays relative to longer ones, aligning with the study’s objective of examining determinants of park use behavior.

5.1 Spatial and perceptual determinants of park use

Both stages of the factor score regression analysis (Paths B and C) showed consistent associations between spatial accessibility and pattern of park use, supporting previous studies that identify accessibility as a key determinant of visitation behavior [45, 46]. Interpreted as a contextual characteristic of the study parks, accessibility appeared to be associated with distinct behavioral mechanisms. Parks with higher accessibility were generally linked to more frequent visitation and longer engagement, suggesting that reduced travel effort, time, and cost may facilitate the integration of park use into everyday routines. This interpretation is consistent with the principles of the 15-minute city, which emphasize proximity to everyday destinations as a means of promoting active mobility, health, and well-being [47-50].

However, the results also indicate that accessibility alone does not fully explain patterns of park use. Although higher accessibility generally increased the likelihood of longer stays and more frequent visits, the heaviest users were not always those with the highest levels of accessibility. This finding suggests that habitual park use may be influenced by factors beyond physical proximity, including personal motivations, recreational preferences, and subjective well-being. While accessibility has consistently been identified as an important predictor of visitation behavior, previous studies have also shown that park use is shaped by psychological and experiential factors that may override spatial constraints among highly motivated users [51]. In contrast, accessibility may be particularly important for moderate users, whose visitation behavior appears more sensitive to reductions in travel barriers. These findings reinforce the notion that accessibility functions as an enabling condition for park use, while the intensity of engagement is ultimately shaped by a broader set of individual and contextual factors.

Taken together, these findings suggest that accessibility functions as an important enabling condition for park use, even though it does not solely determine patterns of engagement. This interpretation is particularly relevant in the context of the citywide accessibility assessment, which revealed substantial inequalities in the distribution of UGPS opportunities. From a spatial justice perspective, the significant influence of accessibility on visitation behavior indicates that unequal access to green spaces may translate into unequal opportunities to experience their recreational, social, and health benefits. Consequently, improving the equitable distribution of accessible UGPS remains a critical component of fostering inclusive and sustainable urban environments.

The perceived comfort and image, which includes safety, cleanliness, and aesthetic appeal, emerged as one of the strongest predictors of time spent in the park. This underscores that if people feel safe, comfortable, and pleased with the environment, they tend to linger and truly utilize the space, confirming that subjective experiences shape engagement [52, 53]. Users are more likely to relax, explore, and prolong their stay in a well-maintained and visually inviting park, underscoring that perceived quality and safety foster sustained use and strengthen the social and health benefits of UGPS [54].

The perceived variety of uses and activities within a park, encompassing recreational facilities, events, or amenities, showed a differentiated effect on user behavior. In the time spent model, a higher “uses & activities” score corresponded to significantly longer visits, aligning with the placemaking concept which suggests that diverse amenities can capture visitor interest and extend engagement period [24, 55, 56]. This finding indicates that visitors are likely to remain in parks longer when they perceive a broader range of recreational opportunities and supporting facilities. While longer visit duration should not automatically be interpreted as a positive outcome, the visitor-purpose analysis indicated that respondents primarily used the parks for recreation, relaxation, educational activities, attending event, and health-related purposes. This suggests that extended stays in the surveyed parks are more likely to reflect continued participation in park-related activities and engagement with the park environment. Nevertheless, the specific activities undertaken during extended visits were not directly examined.

However, this factor did not significantly influence visitation frequency, revealing an important distinction between attracting longer engagement and encouraging repeated use. The absence of a significant relationship with frequency suggests that diverse amenities alone may not be sufficient to establish habitual visitation. While facilities and activities may enhance the quality of the visitor experience and extend the duration of individual visits, regular park use may depend more heavily on factors such as accessibility, convenience, daily routines, and personal motivations. From a planning perspective, this finding implies that investments in recreational facilities and programming may improve visitor experience and prolong engagement, but may not necessarily increase visitation frequency unless complemented by broader improvements in accessibility, connectivity, and park management.

Meanwhile, perceived access and linkages also emerged as a consistent and powerful predictor of both the frequency and duration of park use. The findings indicate that when parks are perceived as easy to reach and navigate, through well-placed facilities, clear pathways, and strong connectivity, they not only attract more frequent visits but also sustain longer stays. This finding aligns with the prior studies emphasizing the role of accessibility in shaping both visitation and engagement [51, 57]. This dual influence underscores accessibility as a cornerstone of placemaking: well-connected parks foster habitual visitation patterns and prolonged engagement, thereby enhancing opportunities for social interaction, recreation, and restorative experiences [24, 55, 56]. Conversely, inadequate access or poor internal linkages may truncate both the regularity and depth of use, limiting the social and health benefits UGPS are intended to deliver.

Park quality has been identified as one of the most significant predictors of social interaction [54]. In this study, perceived sociability demonstrated a nuanced role in shaping park use, influencing visit duration and frequency in different ways. Users who viewed parks as lively, interactive, and socially engaging tended to report longer visit durations, suggesting that vibrant environments may contribute to more sustained use of park spaces [58-60]. However, higher sociability scores were also associated with greater odds of being a light rather than a heavy user, indicating that sociability does not necessarily translate into more frequent visitation.

This contrasting influence highlights an important distinction between engagement and habitual use. Higher perceived sociability was associated with longer visits, suggesting that opportunities for interaction, community participation, and social support may contribute to more engaging park experience. However, sociability was not associated with more frequent visitation, indicating that socially vibrant environments do not necessarily appeal equally to all users for routine park use. Some visitors may prefer quieter settings for relaxation, restoration, or solitary recreation, making highly social environments less attractive for routine use. Similar observations have been reported in previous studies suggesting that social interactions often cluster within specific areas and are context-dependent, suggesting that social interactions are often context-dependent and concentrated in specific settings, allowing sociability to deepen engagement without necessarily increasing visitation frequency [54, 61].

From a placemaking perspective, sociability transforms parks into meaningful places that foster deeper engagement during visits [11]. However, Social Exchange Theory reminds us that engagement is contingent on perceived costs and rewards [62, 63]. For some users, lively social settings provide strong incentives to interact, while for others they may feel overwhelming or situational. Consequently, sociability emerges as a paradoxical dimension of placemaking, enhancing the quality and depth of individual visits but not always translating into regular or routine use across groups.

5.2 Demographic patterns and inclusive engagement

Perceptions and use pattern varied significantly across socio-demographic groups. The finding revealed significant relationship between visitor income and time spent in parks where lower-income visitors experienced substantially shorter visits compared to higher-income groups. This pattern reflects previous findings linking economic disparities to uneven park use and engagement [64-66]. Interestingly, other study observed that higher levels of comfort with park environments among lower-income respondents, suggesting that positive perceptions of park quality do not necessarily translate into longer durations of use [67]. The findings highlight that urban parks are not equally accessible or utilized across income groups. While physical access may exist, effective participation remains hindered by social and economic barriers. From a spatial justice perspective, this finding highlights that equitable access extends beyond physical proximity. Although parks may be geographically accessible, lower-income individuals may face constraints related to work schedules, transportation costs, caregiving responsibilities, or limited leisure time that reduce their ability to fully benefit from these spaces. Consequently, equal spatial provision does not automatically ensure equal opportunities for use and enjoyment, underscoring the importance of considering socio-economic barriers alongside physical accessibility in UGPS planning.

Meanwhile, the significant effect of occupation on visitation frequency suggests that work-life factors strongly shape park use. Government employees and other full-time workers reported a greater tendency to use the park frequently. Similar patterns have been reported that individuals working standard hours (8–10 hours per day) were more inclined toward frequent visits [68]. Contrary to expectations, retirees or individuals with greater discretionary time did not exhibit higher visitation frequencies. This finding suggests that the availability of free time alone may not be sufficient to encourage park use. Factors such as health status, mobility limitations, social networks, and the availability of age-appropriate activities may play a more important role in determining whether individuals regularly engage with UGPS [69]. The results therefore indicate that park use is influenced not only by temporal availability but also by how well parks align with the needs and lifestyles of different user groups.

Gender was not a significant factor in park use, echoing studies that also found minimal gender variation in visitation frequency population [70]. Although research from China identified contextual gender gaps in duration and activity type [71, 72], the balanced pattern observed in this study suggests that the parks effectively support both male- and female-oriented activities. The capacity of the parks to host activities ranging from social and educational programs for youth to restorative and health-related uses for adults and seniors demonstrates a multigenerational and multifunctional character. Such adaptability enables the coexistence of distinct user needs within shared space, strengthening social inclusion and community resilience [73].

Although previous research reported a significant positive correlation between age and frequency of use, no comparable pattern was observed in the present study, as usage intensity did not differ significantly across age groups [53]. This disparity could be due to differences in the study population, geographic location, or specific definitions of usage intensity and frequency of use. The observed lack of age disparity in park usage can be a significant finding, as previous studies has documented barrier older people often face in accessing public spaces [4, 74, 75] and youths tend to underutilize parks due to perceived lack of interest [51], which suggests that equity is not given. The findings tentatively suggest that the park's design and activities positively create an inclusive and welcoming atmosphere for a broad demographic, from youths to seniors.

Education level was also not a significant predictor of park use, contrasting with evidence linking higher education to more frequent visitation [76]. While some studies suggest that education may influence how people perceive a park’s attractiveness [70], the findings of this study indicate that such perceptual differences do not necessarily translate into measurable differences in actual use. Individuals from diverse educational backgrounds were equally represented among frequent and long-stay visitors, underscoring the park’s role in fostering social cohesion and inclusivity. This pattern suggests that, regardless of educational attainment, users experience comparable opportunities for recreation and interaction, an encouraging sign of socially sustainable public space where socio-economic differences do not limit engagement.

Longer visits were strongly associated with higher accessibility and more positive perceptions of park quality. Although most socio-demographic variables were not significant, household income consistently shaped patterns of use, with lower-income groups experiencing shorter stays. This finding is consistent with previous studies showing adequate access and connectivity enhance sociability, comfort, and activities, while park attributes influence visit duration across types [77, 78]. Together, these insights reinforce the idea that both spatial and perceptual dimensions are critical in understanding how parks function as everyday public spaces.

Overall, accessibility and perception jointly shape how people engage with parks, influencing not only to equitable spatial distribution but also to the social and economic contexts that shape participation. While accessibility determines whether people can conveniently reach parks, perceptions of comfort, sociability, activities, and connectivity influence the quality and depth of engagement once users arrive. The generally balanced patterns of use across gender and age groups suggests progress toward inclusivity. However, the shorter visits observed among lower-income users indicate that equitable physical provision does not necessarily translate into equitable benefits. These findings reinforce the principles of spatial justice by highlighting that UGPS equity extends beyond proximity and availability to include the capacity of diverse user groups to meaningfully access and benefit from these spaces. Addressing such disparities through improved walkability, inclusive programming, and culturally responsive park management can strengthen engagement and support the goal of universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible green spaces envisioned under SDG 11.7.

Vida Fe K. Lagumbay: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Vilas Nitivattananon: Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. Harshit Sosan Lakra: Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Local Government of Cagayan de Oro City, particularly the City Planning and Development Office, as well as the Philippine Statistics Authority, for providing secondary data essential to this study. Sincere thanks are also extended to all survey participants and experts whose time and responses contributed meaningfully to the outcome of this research.