Accessibility Challenges in Indian Multimodal Transportation for Differently-Abled Riders: A Systematic Review for a Context-Specific Evaluation Tool

2.1 Methodology

This research focuses on establishing an accessibility evaluation tool for multimodal transportation hubs in Indian cities and providing a thorough analysis of India's multimodal transportation system's accessibility problems for differently-abled users. A PRISMA-compliant systematic literature review was done to achieve this (Table 1).

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for study selection

2.1.1 Database selection

The literature review began with a thorough search of Scopus and Web of Science. These academic search engines were used for the research since they fit the required criteria. What stood out the most about these databases was how extensive and multidisciplinary they were. Among all abstract and citation databases, Scopus and WoS are considered very comprehensive and trustworthy for peer-reviewed papers. Such fields include engineering, public health, social sciences and urban planning, all related to how easily people can use transport. The field being complicated and involving many areas of study called for this detailed look at the data.

The excellent quality of the articles listed by Scopus and WoS was very important in our choice. Mainly, the databases include scientific writings, meeting summaries and reviewed journals, so all content is academically sound and reliable. It is necessary to maintain the truth and value of the studies used in a systematic literature review.

Both WoS and Scopus include a wide variety of Indian research in their global database. WoS and Scopus cover a large number of papers written by Indian scholars, and the large majority of these are from reputed national or world-class journals, even with the availability of tailored databases. It was necessary to include this section so that the authors could examine Indian events from a worldwide point of view and highlight the similarities and differences between them and practices worldwide.

They also come with useful searching options so users can build filters and queries that are more complicated. Applying these abilities forms the base of a designed and orderly search for relevant information in literary works.

Using TRID alongside Scopus and WoS was not necessary since the key sources proved to be Scopus and WoS. Their interdisciplinary breadth and inclusive indexing allowed for a wider scope of relevant literature to be identified, including studies that might not be captured by more narrowly focused databases.

2.1.2 Search strategy and study selection

The included studies published between 2000 and 2022 were considered so that both classical studies and the most recent ones would be included. A plan was made to search using Boolean operators (AND OR) that helped connect and categorize keywords under the main themes of interest.

Keywords in the accessibility issues theme are “accessibility challenge*,” “accessibility problem*,” “barrier-free” and “universal design.” The second point concerned identifying the relevant demographic groups by calling them “differently-abled,” “disab*,” “persons with disabilities,” “PwD*” and “mobility impair*.” The third theme was Transportation System, which dealt with the main structure of the study by using phrases such as “multimodal transport*,” “multi-modal transport*,” “intermodal transport*,” “public transit” and “transportation system*.” The fourth area, Inclusion & Context, included social equity concerns by mentioning words like “inclusive transport” and “equitable transport.”

When starting the search, “India” was looked for without any geographical constraints. Because of this, we could highlight practices that exist in other countries and could possibly affect and direct Indian policy.

The initial search found 5,537 records—2,913 from Scopus and 2,624 from Web of Science.

We initially integrated Scopus and Web of Science datasets to include high-quality, relevant literature. Reference management software organized and de-duplicated records while merging. Duplicate studies in both databases were deleted. Despite using automated techniques, we found that metadata discrepancies, such as author names, paper titles, and publication years, could cause inadequate de-duplication. To avoid duplicates, the merged dataset was manually reviewed to identify and remove them. A rigorous method reduced the dataset to 3,970 distinct records.

The authors checked the titles and abstracts of the remaining records for relevance to the study goals after de-duplication. Studies on transportation system accessibility, including differently-abled people, multimodal transportation, legislative initiatives, technological solutions, and stakeholder engagement, were included. Studies not directly related to these issues or missing details were removed. The screening method identified 567 possibly relevant records.

After that, we reviewed these 567 papers in full to determine their suitability for the final analysis. This step reviewed papers for methodological rigor, relevance to the Indian context (either directly or by transferable insights from comparable settings), and depth of contribution to understanding accessibility concerns and solutions. Empirical data, case studies, and extensive reviews that could inform the accessibility evaluation tool were prioritized.

2.1.3 Quality assessment

A formal quality assessment checklist was not employed because of the diverse nature of the included studies, which consisted of qualitative research, quantitative analyses, and policy evaluations. The research team instead performed a qualitative evaluation of each full-text article according to three main criteria. The methodology's rigor was evaluated by examining the clarity of the research goals, the appropriateness of the chosen methodology, the robustness of data collection and analysis (for empirical studies), and the comprehensiveness of the content (for reviews). Secondly, we assessed the study's relevance to the research questions by examining its direct engagement with the primary issues of accessibility challenges in Indian multimodal transportation for individuals with disabilities. The depth of the contribution was evaluated according to the significance of the findings, the originality of the insights, and the study's potential to inform the development of an accessibility evaluation tool or policy recommendations. Studies that incorporated empirical data, case studies, or thorough reviews pertinent to the development of the tool were prioritized. A formal quality assessment checklist was not employed because of the heterogeneous nature of the included studies, which included qualitative research, quantitative analyses, and policy evaluations. The research team performed a qualitative evaluation of each full-text article according to three main criteria.

The assessment of methodology rigor involved evaluating the clarity of research goals, the appropriateness of the chosen methodology, the robustness of data collection and analysis (in empirical studies), and the comprehensiveness of content (in reviews). Secondly, we assessed the study's relevance to the research questions by evaluating its direct engagement with the primary issues of accessibility challenges in Indian multimodal transportation for individuals with disabilities. Judgments were made based on how significant the study’s findings were, how new and inspiring the conclusions appeared, and how helpful the study could be in shaping an accessibility evaluation tool or making policy recommendations. Results of studies making use of empirical data, case studies, or broad review articles related to tool development were given preference.

After careful examination, 60 papers were included in the final study. These studies cover infrastructure issues, policy analysis, technological advances, and stakeholder views on transportation system accessibility. The selected publications were qualitatively examined to identify research objectives-relevant themes, findings, and recommendations.

These studies were combined to determine India's multimodal transportation system's biggest issues for differently-abled people. The investigation also compared worldwide best practices and assessed their applicability to India. A unique accessibility rating method for Indian multimodal transportation hubs was developed from this extensive synthesis.

Figure 1 shows the PRISMA-based systematic literature review. Record identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and study analysis are shown in the flow diagram. The literature evaluation was extensive, neutral, and consistent with research objectives due to this meticulous approach.

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This methodical approach gives the research a solid platform for understanding India's transportation system's numerous accessibility issues and presents evidence-based recommendations to improve inclusion and accessibility for differently-abled riders.

2.2 Literature review

The review is organised around different topics to examine the different challenges related to accessibility in Indian multimodal transportation. It combines worldwide studies and, if available, local Indian studies to offer a detailed view of the issues, actions taken by governments, new technologies, and the influence of key participants. This is done to closely review how other nations’ results match or vary from India, to discover what’s missing in this area, and develop a unique accessibility appraisal system for India.

2.2.1 Overview of multimodal transportation in India

There are roads, trains, aircraft, canals, and metros that unite to make India’s transportation system so vast. The use of different modes together plays a major role in the progress of a nation by helping people and goods move, boosting the economy, and encouraging city development [11]. Still, this type of system encounters major problems. Singh [11] pointed out that in the beginning, urban transport in India was badly affected by problems such as traffic and pollution. Multimodal solutions try to tackle these issues.

Complexities in these subjects are made clear by research done within India. Kumar and Anbanandam [12] examined India's main multimodal freight transport issues. Laws were proposed to increase multimodal freight transport sustainability and lessen its environmental impact. Sustainable, integrated multimodal transportation should be led by policymakers and Indian Railways. Bhattacharya et al. [13] optimize Indian multimodal freight transport supply chain logistics. The method enhanced road-rail integration. Thus, intramodality enhanced transportation and reduced expenses. The model illustrates how a well-coordinated multimodal transport system optimizes logistics and supply chain activities. The study [14] improved Delhi-Mumbai freight rail-truck intermodal service. We wanted to increase competitiveness and reduce transportation expenses. Economically viable intermodal systems increase Indian freight transportation efficiency. Chakraborty and He [15] emphasize the many unregulated transportation concerns in India. This includes pain, unreliability, pollution, and congestion. Disruptive engineering and ICT are suggested to increase transportation network efficiency and sustainability. All of these studies point to a system aiming for unity and better flows and accessibility for disabled people must be measured beside them.

While global studies, like the study [16], integrated vehicle logistics, ship-trucks to develop a sustainable sea-rail multimodal distribution network. Examination and maintenance of ship and truck distribution networks can balance environmental and economic benefits, according to the scientists. Find the optimum distribution network with mixed integer programming. Liu et al. [17] described a multimodal transport information platform development roadmap with different timeframes. To maximize transit and eliminate delays in the multimodal transport network, the authors plan to align and coordinate port facilities and transportation systems. Finally, Elbert et al. [18] and Stjernborg [19] increase multimodal transportation proposals and strategic planning and design.

India's multimodal transportation system requires collaboration and innovation across modes and concerns. Topics include network layout optimization, freight logistics, environmental problems, and transportation mode information interchange and coordination. For an effective, sustainable, and holistic multimodal transport system in India, these variables must be integrated.

Figure 2 displays college transportation system accessibility research citation spikes and VOSviewer-generated collaborative networks. In Panel A, prestigious universities like Palermo and Hong Kong dominate research and collaboration. The huge citation network in Panel B includes Michigan State University and Sheffield University. Panel C displays the chronological evolution of major institutions in this study area, whereas Panel D contains the top 25 institutions with the most significant citation bursts. This analysis reveals how these institutions influence worldwide transportation accessibility discussions, laying the framework for future research partnerships.

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2.2.2 Accessibility challenges faced by differently-abled riders

People in India who have disabilities face many different and serious problems when they use multimodal transportation. These problems can be grouped into three main categories: problems with infrastructure and facilities, problems with services across different modes of transportation (public transit, last-mile connectivity, ride-sharing), and problems with the system as a whole.

Limitations in infrastructure and facilities. One big problem is that it's hard to access to the infrastructure. A lot of places in the world have trouble with not having ramps, lifts, tactile paving, and clear signs [20, 21]. India is feeling this extremely strongly. The study [1] presents a clear example of how the Delhi Metro's design doesn't work for people who can't see well. This highlights how gaps in infrastructure can make it tougher for people to travel about and do things. Bezyak et al. [22] talk about accessible tourism in a larger way, but they also say that disabled persons in India have much more trouble because they don't know about the area's topography and public transit choices. This is a discovery that makes sense in India.

Problems with service in public transportation. Public transit is meant to be accessible to all; however, it frequently encounters several issues. A comprehensive analysis of the physical barriers encountered by adaptive bike users on a global scale [23], whereas Du et al. [24] delineate the widespread difficulties confronted by those with mobility disabilities when using public transportation. Ali and Abdullah [25] discovered significant service-related issues in India, including bus operators' apathy and ignorance, inadequately constructed interchanges, and information manipulation. All of these characteristics make it dangerous and hard for disabled people to get on and off. These service failures that only happen in India suggest that something needs to be done that goes beyond just mending the infrastructure.

Last-mile connectivity. Last-mile connectivity is still a crucial aspect of a transit system that is easy to use, but it is often overlooked. Du et al. [24] noted that PwDs often avoid public transportation on transfer routes because of the physical and mental stress that comes with making changes. Everyone has to deal with this problem, but it's especially difficult in India's rapidly increasing cities. Research [25] in Lahore, Pakistan, shares numerous metropolitan characteristics with Indian cities, revealing that educated individuals with disabilities encounter geographical injustice, financial inadequacy, and infrastructure inaccessibility. This study, especially relevant to India, underscores the imperative for designated accessible platforms, pedestrian pathways, ramp access, and enough transition durations—elements often lacking in Indian last-mile solutions.

Convenient use of taxi and ride-sharing services. Taxi and ride-sharing services may be easy to use, but they also have their own problems with accessibility. Sannon and Bigham [26] discussed the detrimental effects of algorithmic governance in the gig economy on drivers assisting disabled passengers globally. Goralzik et al. [27] recognized problems related to design and wheelchair accessibility in automobiles. Even if these results are from other nations, they are nonetheless important for India's developing gig economy and app-based taxi services. In India, the limited availability of wheelchair-accessible vehicles and the potential for driver bias or insufficient training in assisting disabled passengers are significant issues that warrant more investigation. More research on India is needed to find out how widespread these hurdles are and what kinds of them are in Indian ride-sharing ecosystems.

Major problems with the system. Systemic barriers are more than just problems with services and physical things. Other problems are not enough enforcement of rules, not enough awareness, and not enough information on the special needs of differently-abled riders in India. We shall talk more about these in the future sections on policy and technology.

In conclusion, disabled Indian tourists face public transit, ride-sharing, and infrastructure difficulties. To solve these issues, policymakers, transportation authorities, and service providers must collaborate on inclusive designs, awareness, and transit accessibility.

The 2000–2022 distribution of transportation accessibility publications is shown in Figure 3. The graph demonstrates constant publication growth, notably since 2018, indicating growing research interest in this topic. This issue has expanded tremendously in recent years, as demonstrated by the red trend line.

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2.2.3 Government policies and initiatives

Government rules are very important for making sure that transportation is easy to access.

• Global perspective:

Disability transportation accessibility requires government regulations. No matter their physical capabilities, rules and initiative frameworks make the system accessible.

Rao et al. [28] created a model to analyze the link between accessibility, activity engagement, and TRSE risk in São Paulo, Brazil. The two criteria are complex, therefore boosting accessibility may not fix respondents' behaviors.

Hernández and Rodríguez [29] reported minimal wheelchair-accessible public transit in Montevideo, Uruguay. This encourages legislators to support universal public transit design, which adapts infrastructure to riders' demands. Despite the transport policy's focus on well-being and equality, Burdett et al. [30] found little competent or usable information and minimal engagement, underscoring New Zealand transport professionals' uncertainties. Therefore, New Zealand's policy must set explicit performance goals and boost disability involvement to exceed autonomy and inclusion standards.

The 2020 Tokyo rearrangement included accessible measures, demonstrating Japan's policy reference to the study [31]. Disability advocacy and well-organized events have changed policy and raised awareness of transportation inaccessibility for decades.

Ali and Abdullah [25] from Lahore, Pakistan, assert that government regulations appear to respect disabled people's demands, necessitating rigorous transit accessibility. Devolution and policy implementation are below; delayed execution lets policies do nothing. Kuzio [32] suggested disabled-friendly ADA modifications and rules to boost autonomous car sales. This illustrates the necessity to alter laws and automation trends to incorporate all social groups.

Africa's transportation networks lack disabled-inclusive regulations, according to Vanderschuren and Nnene [33]. South Africa's transport system planning and building is outstanding, but the continent lacks inclusive policies. Improved urban transportation neo-design supports disability inclusion.

Cerdan Chiscano [34] indicates that travelers need pre-trip communication. Group transportation requires planning [24], which involves improved bus travel via demand clustering, bus assignments, and route optimization. This method maximized disabled bus use.

• Indian context:

According to a report, 31 states accounted for 87.8% of all road accident injuries in India in 2016 [24]. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPwD) 2016, requires barrier-free Indian transportation and infrastructure. Public transportation with accessible buses, tactile walkways, and audio traffic signals is promoted under the Act. The 2015 Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan) seeks to improve impaired access to urban infrastructure, particularly transportation. Insufficient enforcement, inconsistent state applicability, and inadequate funds hinder implementation.

NUTP promotes inclusive, sustainable transportation networks to improve urban mobility. Policy promotes pedestrian-friendly urban infrastructure and public transportation. Even so, execution varies, especially in smaller municipalities and rural areas with limited resources and abilities.

The authors evaluate governance structures and policy implementations in Indian urban development to identify institutional problems and opportunities [35-37]. SPVs under the SCM improved urban governance and project delivery. SPVs' benefits are unknown due to adaptation challenges and criticisms compared to conventional governance frameworks [36]. These findings emphasize inclusive and accessible urban planning policy frameworks and governance systems.

To improve impaired passenger accessibility, smart city development needs good governance and institutions. Urban growth and management require strong planning, design, and stakeholder engagement, according to Mugambwa and Katusiimeh [37]. Policies that prioritize technical advancement and inclusive urban settings that suit everyone's needs are needed.

2.2.4 Technological solutions and innovations: Global technological advancements

Technology offers intriguing methods to improve disability access to transportation and other daily activities. The latter comprises road mobility and other travel pleasures. Darko et al. [38] created adaptive personalized routing systems for impaired persons. Online data helps this sequential decision system avoid steep inclines and restricted pedestrian pathways. We hope our routing system will increase social and physical accessibility for wheelchair users and others with mobility issues. Assistive technology helps the aged and disabled, according to Muthu et al. [39]. However, some movement and communication aids are limited. This study emphasizes the necessity for assistive technology research and development to improve existing apps. Access to technology helps all students study, says Dudnikova [40]. The Five Elements of Technology Accessibility Policy Enactment for K-12 Schools are needed to help challenged children with accessibility. Žilak et al. [41] study portable AR's accessibility, obstacles, and best practices. Augmented reality makes digital technology more inclusive by customizing and personalizing. Morris [42] examines AI ethics as accessibility improves. AI could reduce boundaries, but Morris raises questions about inclusiveness, prejudice, and privacy. To make AI accessible, technology ethics are essential. Strug and Ślusarczyk [43] identified public building accessible paths using BIM/IFC building graph models. The authors show how building information models increases navigation and disability accessibility.

• Indian innovations and barriers to adoption:

In India, some technological initiatives are noteworthy. The IIT Delhi Assistech lab's SmartCane3 helps visually impaired persons overcome obstacles [44]. The initiative examines transdisciplinary user-centered research and low-income nation technology development. Remote access apps and voice communication help impaired persons integrate, say Hahn et al. [45]. TeamViewer and Skype allow live training, communication, and lectures. Technology is essential for accessibility. Accessible, inclusive, and empowering technologies require research and collaboration. Kameswaran et al. [46] demonstrate how technology lowers social and technological obstacles. The authors explore how campaigning generates awareness and asks sighted people for aid with digital banking for visually impaired people. This study proposes making valuable tools more accessible. In poor areas, Barbareschi et al. [47] prioritize culturally acceptable technologies. HCI research with disabled persons is essential for creating accessible, culturally relevant, empowering technology.

Budget constraints, the necessity for customization, limited technological proficiency, and inconsistent connectivity can render numerous advanced solutions unfeasible for a substantial portion of differently-abled individuals in India, according to global research [40, 46]. The exorbitant cost of assistive technologies is a significant concern. Therefore, while innovative concepts from the global community may prove advantageous, India's solutions must be cost-effective, durable, user-friendly, and designed with the nation's infrastructure and digital divide in mind.

2.2.5 Stakeholder perspectives and community engagement

Accessibility initiative design and execution by persons with different abilities and advocacy organizations promotes policy efficacy, equity, and social inclusion. Participation ensures their needs and viewpoints are heard, leading to more diverse and better access solutions.

• International Viewpoints:

Arrington and Bookman [31] demonstrate how disability advocacy and lobbying affected Japanese accessibility policies before the 2020 Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics. Policy modifications and accessibility improvements by disability organizations and advocacy groups showed collaboration in inclusive policy creation. Prah Ruger and Mitra [48] stress the importance of consulting PwDs and customizing election campaigns to meet their needs to ensure that the electoral process is accessible to all and aligns with the principle of equitable engagement opportunities in democratic processes. Pyke and Wilton [49] suggest that disability organization engagement improves the Ontario Emergency Preparedness Guide for People with Disabilities by recognizing handicapped diversity and strengthening interdependence and community readiness.

To research technique integrity and prejudice reduction, Harniss et al. [50] recommend incorporating disabled persons and advocacy organizations. As shown in the National Children's Study. Flexibility in research measurements for varied individuals. Nyongo et al. [51] indicate that the Kenyan EMPOWER Program increased handicapped breast and cervical cancer screening rates through co-advocacy and teamwork. Participatory healthcare empowers disabled customers to make health decisions. Care-users must co-create patient-reported experience evaluation systems [52]. These methods let interested parties collaborate on topic relevance, comprehensibility, and adaptability. According to Trevisan and Cogburn [53], disability rights activists will increase technology and accessibility for impaired people, boosting global governance and human rights.

Lee and Miller [54] propose the average space-time prism (ASTP) for network space collective accessibility study. This method can evaluate disability accessibility and inform planning.

• Indian perspectives for stakeholders:

The idea of engaging with stakeholders is accepted, but it needs to be properly carried out when planning for accessibility in Indian transport. Yan [55] recommends planners consider accessibility. Involving handicapped individuals and advocacy organizations in planning may help make the built environment inclusive and accessible. Garcia-Iriarte et al. [56] suggest improving disability self-advocacy groups with PAR. Because active engagement and individualized support frameworks affect decision-making and advocacy, care receivers should participate in research and advocacy. The process of creating and testing the accessibility valuation tool will depend on coupling with people who use bikes to make sure it addresses and reflects their needs when traveling. Since little research has looked at how stakeholders are involved in transportation accessibility in India, this topic becomes more important.

Shortcomings in accessibility are similar around the world, though the specific problems and choices of appropriate solutions depend very much on India’s culture, economy, infrastructure and policies. In essence, the analysis highlights that more studies should focus on India’s transportation sector, by addressing issues like gaps in delivering services, using technology and working well with relevant stakeholders.

Figure 4 thoroughly examines passenger on-demand ridesharing behaviour. It categorizes factors as motivators, barriers, and limits. Demographic, psychological, and situational factors influence passenger decision-making, demonstrating their complexity. Ridesharing passengers' concerns and trade-offs are due to barriers and boundaries.

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Disability activists and persons with impairments must participate in inclusive and fair accessibility projects. Effective case studies and best practices demonstrate how stakeholder participation promotes policy efficacy, accessibility, and community empowerment.

Table 2 outlines important research on multimodal transportation accessibility for differently-abled people and AI technology to increase accessibility. The chart shows the variety of study techniques, technology like deep learning, and subjects including urban planning, infrastructure management, and AI-driven accessibility frameworks. Accessibility issues and solutions vary, as shown by the studies' geographical coverage and technical and regulatory solutions.

Table 2. Overview of accessibility challenges and solutions in multimodal transportation systems

It is clear from analysis of the literature that improving accessibility to transport for the differently-abled in India requires addressing problems with infrastructure, following government guidelines, improving technology and getting more stakeholders involved. It is necessary to make research-backed strategies after we have identified these issues for successful solutions.

The first step is to upgrade the process for collecting data. It is hard to have personalized treatments without separate disability statistics [22]. To design policies and serve differently-abled people, it is important to first understand their different needs and preferences [24, 25]. Details from inclusive surveys allow policymakers to come up with policies that benefit all types of people.

If infrastructure is improved, it will be easier for impaired residents to take public transport. Many of the transport systems in India are missing basic facilities such as ramps, tactile pavements and elevators [19, 20]. Even though modern universal design is being promoted [38], it is not being used quickly.

Many countries, for example, the United Kingdom, have done well by using tactile paving and audible signals for pedestrians, standards put in place since the 1990s, which greatly helped visually impaired people. Japan’s public transport is easy to navigate, especially if you are blind or partially sighted, since all its metro systems have Braille, platform doors, and lots of assistance available.

The process of using these in India should take place step by step. To give an example, it is very challenging to update all current networks at the same time. According to the Accessible India Campaign, building new projects and 68accessibility is included from the beginning of new project designs, it is usually less expensive than making changes later. When advocates are louder and pricing strategies clearly highlight the economic advantages, political will can be promoted. It would help the environment if local materials and designs made for particular situations (for example, wind and rain in monsoon areas) were used.

It is also important to apply policy norms, but this task encounters numerous challenges. The study of literature revealed that the RPwD 2016 was implemented inconsistently throughout India and was also a challenge in New Zealand and Uruguay [29, 30] when it came to implementing their respective polices.

Because India is a federation, this type of inconsistency is natural within the system. Effective implementation of the RPwD Act is possible mainly through the actions of state governments and urban bodies in each area. Because each state is unique, this often leads to unequal results in education. It is not often that governments do not mean well, but rather the difficulty in applying national policies at the lower levels that creates the gaps. For example, having the same level of accessibility on state transport buses operated by various organizations (STUs) can’t be achieved unless there is strong cooperation among governments and reliable funding exists which is not always present. Ensuring that reforms include strict audits, clear responsibilities for breaking rules and enough support for carrying out actions at state and local levels is very important. Limiting acceptance requires building strong organizations across states, giving central funding and technical help to those who meet goals and encouraging everyone to accept accessibility as a basic right.

Informing and preparing people and businesses is necessary to include them in public and transportation services. The ignorance and negativity demonstrated by bus operators point out this need [23]. Cox and Bartle [21] recommend that training staff to assist passengers who need help greatly improves the service and user satisfaction. While there is only a need for minimal investment, these kinds of initiatives can succeed only if they are kept up and always made part of the company’s regular activities.

Using innovative technology, accessibility can be improved a lot. Adaptive routing systems have been studied by Darko et al. [38], while Kameswaran et al. [46] looked into assistive apps. Real-time information for transit is found in many cities throughout Europe and North America and in the UK, there is the "Wayfindr" app that aids visually impaired people.

To use these in India, we must solve the problem of the digital divide and make them affordable. Even though smartphones are widely accessible, the ability to use technology well and continuous internet are not. Solutions are most useful when they use several languages, can still be used with poor internet and have been co-built with people who will use them. Transport authorities should make open data policies, engage in public-private cooperation and enforce policies that guarantee affordability for everyone by giving subsidies. Making technology accessible mainly depends on understanding its ethical role and how simple it is to use [42].

All Bethune’s points are valid and effectiveness comes from working with governments and transit officials, advocacy groups and differently-abled individuals. Disability activism in Japan and interacting with PwDs matters, emphasizing why including stakeholders is important [31, 51].

A lot of countries’ successful models in paratransit, such as those in Canada (for instance, HandyDART in Vancouver), always involve users with disabilities in their planning and guidance.

Consultations are required by the RPwD Act in India, but how effective they are can change. Improving these advisory bodies, including people from different groups and supporting advocacy groups by giving them resources can be done with ease. As a result, solutions can be developed together, which makes them more practical and used by many.

Table 6. Consolidated factors and inferences for accessibility

On the whole, from Table 6, to improve transportation for all in India, it is important to use worldwide knowledge, modify solutions to fit India, improve infrastructure to be friendly for all, strictly enforce the rules, teach everyone, bring in useful technology and involve all necessary parties. In order to create inclusive and accessible multimodal transportation strategies, Indian policymakers and practitioners can take advantage of current research and global precedents and modify them to fit local conditions. These programs are essential to enhancing disability independence, mobility, social justice, and inclusive economic growth; they are not just about compliance.