Bile Abdisalan Nor*
| Dzuljastri Abdul Razak
© 2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
OPEN ACCESS
Poverty in Somalia is deeply rooted due to prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental adversities. With approximately 70% of the population living in poverty, Somalia ranks sixth in Sub-Saharan Africa for poverty prevalence. The combination of widespread and severe poverty poses significant challenges to socioeconomic and economic progress unless appropriate policies are implemented. The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence the sustainability of poverty alleviation in Somalia. In this paper, we examined the impact of four sustainability goals, namely, SDG 2 (no hunger), SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), and SDG 17(social protection) in relation to poverty alleviation in Somalia. A judgemental survey using 130 respondents was conducted using face-to-face (42%) and online (58%) techniques. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data and estimate the model parameters. The results found that SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 8, and SDG 17 are all factors that contribute to poverty reduction in Somalia. Based on these findings, the study suggests that the government and policymakers should invest in sustainable agricultural practices (SDG 2) that not only ensure food security but also create job opportunities and income sources for impoverished communities. The government should also allocate resources to prioritize quality education (SDG 4) to equip individuals with the necessary skills for decent work and economic growth (SDG 8). Finally, the government should focus on social protection (SDG 17) in rural and urban areas, thereby reducing unemployment and providing pathways out of poverty, focusing on various dimensions of social protection interventions.
poverty, factors, SDGs, government, Somalia
Poverty eradication has been a primary goal in several nations since it is widely acknowledged as a significant challenge that undermines the socioeconomic progress of a well-functioning society [1]. Poverty is widely recognized as a fundamental characteristic of unsustainable socioeconomic growth and a chronic issue that may significantly impact individuals' well-being [2]. For this reason, the eradication of extreme poverty, together with the efforts to address inequities and injustices, has been prioritized alongside climate change within the framework of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.
In the context of Somalia, poverty alleviation refers to comprehensive and sustainable efforts aimed at reducing and ultimately eradicating the pervasive economic hardship and deprivation faced by a significant portion of the population. Poverty in Somalia is deeply rooted and exacerbated by prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental adversities, with approximately 70% of the population living in impoverished conditions.
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations aim to address the global challenges of poverty, hunger, education, and economic growth. They are denoted by the following: SDG 2 (no hunger), SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), and SDG 17 (social protection). However, achieving sustainable progress in these areas requires a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing their sustainability. This empirical analysis seeks to explore these factors and shed light on how they interact to promote or hinder the sustainability of poverty alleviation efforts. By delving into the complexities of these target areas, we can gain valuable. insights into how to effectively tackle poverty and achieve sustainable development on a global scale. SDG 2 aims to achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture to combat hunger and malnutrition. SDG 4 emphasizes ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for all. At the same time, SDG 8 aims to promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. Lastly, the objective of SDG 17 is to reduce unemployment using various dimensions of social protection interventions.
The need to confront the issues of extreme poverty, rising inequality, heightened risk, and vulnerability has given rise to the expansion of social protection programs. These programs consist of various efforts designed to tackle challenges such as risk, vulnerability, inequality, and poverty by providing transfers in the form of cash or goods. Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in the number of developing countries implementing large-scale cash transfer programs with a specific focus on low-income and marginalized groups [3]. These expanded social protection programs are not only vital in addressing immediate needs but also serve as catalysts for achieving broader developmental goals. Conditional cash transfer programs, for example, have played a significant role in attaining the health and education related to Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). At the same time, social safety nets have mitigated the negative impacts of hunger and poverty crises [3].
In Somalia, social protection programs play a vital role in reducing the adverse effects of the ongoing drought. Poor rainfall seasons have resulted in severe drought conditions in the country. The number of individuals facing food insecurity could rise from 7.1 million to 8.3 million, with specific segments of the population at risk of experiencing famine-like conditions by mid-2023 if humanitarian food assistance is not sustained. To mitigate this humanitarian crisis, grants, including social safety net programs targeted primarily at rural poor and vulnerable households, as well as remittances, are being instrumental. By implementing effective social protection programs, Somalia aims to ensure that individuals have access to essential resources, enabling them to withstand the effects of the drought and build resilience.
This study significantly contributes to the current literature on poverty alleviation in conflict-affected areas by addressing a substantial research gap: the long-term impacts of social protection programs. The research, centered on the complex context of Somalia with its prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental challenges, offers a nuanced examination beyond the commonly studied short-term effects. By extending the temporal scope, the study provides valuable insights into the sustained impacts of poverty alleviation efforts in conflict zones. Aligned with Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 8, and SDG 17, the research not only contextualizes within the broader global agenda but also contributes to a comprehensive evaluation of poverty alleviation initiatives. Moreover, it aims to provide practical implications for policymakers and practitioners engaged in poverty reduction efforts, offering insights into the strengths and weaknesses of social protection programs in Somalia. This critical evaluation is expected to inform the design and implementation of more effective and targeted interventions, contributing to a more sustainable and impactful approach. Ultimately, by focusing on the long-term outcomes, the study builds a knowledge base for sustainable development in conflict-affected regions, laying the groundwork for future research, policy development, and strategic planning in challenging environments.
This study establishes a robust connection between the chosen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Somalia's specific challenges, thereby contributing to the literature on poverty alleviation in conflict-affected areas. In Somalia, where approximately 70% of the population grapples with poverty due to prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental adversities, the relevance of SDG 2 becomes evident. With poor rainfall, drought conditions, and the threat of famine, SDG 2, focused on achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture, directly addresses the urgent need to combat hunger and malnutrition in the country. Moreover, SDG 4, which emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education for all, is crucial in the Somali context. The prolonged conflict has disrupted education systems, leaving many without access to quality learning opportunities. SDG 4 aligns with the need to rebuild educational infrastructure, ensure inclusivity, and provide equitable access to education, addressing a key aspect of the multifaceted challenges facing Somalia. SDG 8 is particularly relevant in the Somali context as it promotes sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. The impact of conflict on the economy, coupled with environmental adversities, makes the pursuit of SDG 8 vital for fostering economic resilience and improving livelihoods in Somalia.
Additionally, SDG 17, emphasizing social protection, has heightened significance in a conflict-affected nation like Somalia. Social protection programs play a crucial role in mitigating the impact of ongoing challenges, such as drought conditions. By providing grants and safety net programs targeted at vulnerable households, SDG 17 aligns with Somalia's urgent need to reduce the adverse effects of humanitarian crises, building resilience among the population.
Poverty in Somalia is deeply rooted due to prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental adversities. With around 70% of the population living in poverty, Somalia ranks sixth in Sub-Saharan Africa for poverty. The combination of widespread and severe poverty poses significant challenges to socioeconomic and economic progress unless appropriate policies are implemented. In recent years, Somalia has been hit by droughts, storms, and swarms of locusts.
In Somalia, the proportion of the employed population living below the international poverty line is a critical indicator of economic vulnerability Figure 1 illustrates Somalia's employed population below the international poverty line.
Source: www.sesric.org
While understanding the factors influencing the sustainability of poverty alleviation efforts is crucial, there is a notable research gap regarding the long-term impacts of social protection programs in Somalia. Existing studies primarily examine the short-term effects of these programs, such as their ability to reduce food insecurity or improve access to water. However, there is limited evidence on how these programs impact individuals' lives in the long run. Therefore, further research is needed to explore the long-term outcomes of social protection programs in Somalia and their implications for sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. This research could provide valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners working towards the SDGs, allowing for the identification of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of poverty reduction strategies and contributing to a more sustainable and equitable future. The organization of this paper is as follows. It begins with section 1 as an introduction. This is followed by a literature review in section 2. Section 3 discusses the methodology of the paper, followed by an analysis in Section 4. Section 5 discusses the findings of the paper, followed by the conclusion and recommendation in Section 6.
In recent years, financial inclusion has gained significant attention to promote economic growth, alleviate poverty, and foster sustainable development. Micro-entrepreneurs frequently struggle with inadequate access to banking services, undermining their ability to manage finances effectively. The irregular income streams inherent to micro-entrepreneurs compound this problem, making it challenging to meet rigid repayment schedules for loans. This precarious financial position inhibits long-term planning and stifles the potential for these entrepreneurs to expand their operations.
A lack of financial literacy among micro-entrepreneurs poses an additional barrier. In addition, the absence of proper education impedes their ability to enable informed decisions regarding financial management and investment. (SDG 4). Moreover, many micro-entrepreneurs operate within the informal sector, constraining their access to formal financial services and safeguards. This, in turn, exposes them to heightened vulnerabilities in an already challenging environment. Micro-entrepreneurs' challenges in accessing financial services resonate deeply with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). SDG 8, focused on Decent Work and Economic Growth, underscores the significance of fostering a conducive environment for small enterprises to thrive, contributing to overall economic prosperity. Similarly, Goal 2, addressing zero hunger, necessitates the reduction of barriers inhibiting the financial advancement of the marginalized.
2.1 Theoretical review
Poverty eradication has been a primary goal in several nations since it is widely acknowledged as a significant challenge that undermines the socioeconomic progress of a well-functioning society [1]. Poverty is widely recognized as a fundamental characteristic of unsustainable socioeconomic growth and a chronic issue that may significantly impact individuals' well-being [2].
According to the Brundtland Report (1987), sustainable development "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Sustainable development calls for concerted efforts toward building an inclusive, sustainable, and resilient future for people and the planet. To achieve this, it is crucial to harmonize three core elements: Economic growth, social inclusion, and governance. These SDGs were developed as a global solution to address the impending environmental crises and poverty (UN, 2015). The purpose of the 17 SDGs and their 169 targets was to formulate an ambitious plan to eradicate poverty without causing significant harm to the Earth's life-support systems [4].
The theoretical framework guiding this study draws on the principles of sustainable development, as articulated in the Brundtland Report (1987). The Brundtland Report defines sustainable development as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This overarching concept serves as the foundation for understanding the interplay between Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their potential impact on poverty alleviation. The framework posits that sustainable development involves harmonizing three core elements: economic growth, social inclusion, and governance. It recognizes the interconnectedness of these dimensions in achieving comprehensive and lasting development. Specifically, economic growth is crucial for providing the resources necessary to meet societal needs, while social inclusion ensures that the benefits of development are equitably distributed. Governance plays a pivotal role in guiding and regulating these processes to ensure sustainability over time. Linking this theoretical framework to the SDGs, the study focuses on SDG 2 (No hunger), SDG 4 (Quality education), SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth), and SDG 17 (Social protection) as key drivers for poverty alleviation. SDG 2 emphasizes the importance of eradicating hunger, achieving food security, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. This goal directly addresses a fundamental aspect of poverty by ensuring access to essential resources. SDG 4 underscores the role of quality education in breaking the cycle of poverty and empowering individuals with skills and knowledge for socio-economic advancement. SDG 8 aims to promote sustained economic growth, full employment, and decent work, directly impacting income generation and overall well-being. SDG 17 focuses on building global partnerships and effective governance to support the achievement of all other SDGs, emphasizing collaboration and resource-sharing for comprehensive development. The theoretical framework, grounded in the principles of sustainable development, provides a lens through which the study examines how these interconnected SDGs contribute to poverty alleviation. By exploring the relationships between specific SDGs and poverty reduction, the study aims to provide nuanced insights into the holistic approach required for sustainable and inclusive development, particularly in the unique context of Somalia, where persistent challenges such as prolonged conflict and political instability contribute to the complexity of poverty alleviation efforts.
2.2 SDG 2 (No hunger) and poverty alleviation
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 aims to eradicate hunger, attain food security, enhance nutrition, and foster sustainable agricultural practices. This goal is essential for reducing poverty, as hunger and malnutrition are significant causes. In addition, sustainable agriculture can help to improve the livelihoods of poor people and reduce their vulnerability to shocks. An increasing amount of empirical research suggests that implementing Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2) may provide favorable outcomes in addressing poverty. For example, a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute found that achieving SDG 2 could reduce extreme poverty by up to 15%. Another study by Prosperity [5] Found that sustainable agriculture could lift 100 million people out of poverty by 2030. According to Oriola [6], It is believed that implementing changes in the irrigation agricultural system can lead to increased food production. This, in turn, has the potential to generate broader growth in both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors of rural economies. Ultimately, this growth can contribute to reducing poverty within the country. Omodero [7] reveal that the Food Production Index significantly and positively impacts poverty reduction, while Agricultural Output has an immaterial negative effect on poverty decrease. The study's findings suggest that the reduction of poverty and the achievement of food security in Nigeria are contingent upon the active engagement of the government in the agricultural sector, as well as enhancements to its agricultural budget. According to Anowor et al. [8], growth in agricultural output has a strong and significant influence in alleviating poverty (reducing poverty).
H1 – There is a significant relationship between no hunger and poverty alleviation
2.3 SDG 4 (Quality education) and poverty alleviation
SDG 4, which focuses on quality education, is closely linked to the sustainability of poverty reduction efforts. Access to education and learning opportunities is crucial in breaking the cycle of poverty and achieving sustainable development goals. The study by Awan et al. [9] conducted in Pakistan found a negative relationship between experience, educational achievement, and the incidence of poverty. This means that as individuals gain more experience and educational qualifications, their likelihood of living in poverty decreases. Additionally, the study highlighted that being male provides an advantage in staying above the poverty level. These findings emphasize the importance of education in poverty reduction, as it enhances skills, knowledge, and opportunities for individuals to improve their economic prospects. Another study [10] also emphasizes the role of education in reducing poverty. It suggests that increasing education levels and cultural development in developing countries can reduce poverty. Education equips individuals with the necessary skills and capabilities to participate in the labour market, access better employment opportunities, and improve their overall socioeconomic status. Liu et al. [11] further support that education plays a significant role in poverty alleviation. Their research indicates that education, in general, has a significant impact on reducing poverty levels. However, the study also highlights that higher education, in particular, seems to be a more powerful tool in combating poverty. Higher education typically provides individuals with advanced knowledge, critical thinking skills, and specialized training, which can lead to better job prospects and higher incomes.
H2 – There is a significant relationship between quality education and poverty alleviation
2.4 SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth) and poverty alleviation
SDG 8 aims to promote sustained, inclusive, balanced economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all." Poverty is a significant obstacle to achieving SDG 8. Poverty can lead to unemployment, underemployment, and low productivity. These factors can make it difficult for people to avoid poverty and can perpetuate the cycle of poverty. There is a growing body of literature on the relationship between decent work and economic growth and the sustainability of poverty. The study by Azunu and Mensah [12] provides a valuable assessment of the impact of the ILO decent work project in Ghana. The findings show that the project has had a significant positive impact on participants' lives, leading to the creation of jobs, improved businesses, and improved economic and health outcomes. The study also highlights the critical role development partners can play in conceptualizing, implementing, and monitoring local economic development interventions. The findings of this study are particularly relevant for national and international development agencies working to improve societal development in sub-Saharan Africa. The study provides evidence that the ILO decent work project is an effective model for promoting economic development and improving the lives of impoverished people. The study also suggests that development partners can play a crucial role in ensuring the success of such projects.
The study [13] provides a valuable critique of SDG 8 and proposes a new framework for the goal more consistent with the principles of strong sustainability. The authors argue that SDG 8, as currently formulated, is based on the assumption that economic growth is necessary for achieving decent work and other social goals. However, they point out that economic growth is incompatible with environmental sustainability and can lead to increased inequality and poverty. Loayza and Raddatz [14] found that economic growth can help to elevate poverty but that the composition of economic growth matters. Growth in unskilled labor-intensive sectors is more effective at reducing poverty than growth in other sectors. This is because these sectors tend to employ more poor people and pay lower wages, which means that the benefits of growth are more evenly distributed. Ravallion and Datt [15] found that growth in agriculture is far more effective at reducing poverty than growth in other sectors. This is because agriculture is the primary source of income for people with low incomes; it is a labor-intensive sector, and it is a relatively stable sector.
H3 – There is a significant relationship between decent and economic growth and poverty alleviation
2.5 SDG 17 (Social protection) and poverty alleviation
SDG 17 focuses on strengthening global partnerships to support the achievement of all other SDGs. With a particular emphasis on social protection, SDG 17 aims to ensure that no one is left behind in the pursuit of poverty reduction and sustainable development. This literature review explores the impact of SDG 17 on poverty reduction, focusing on various dimensions of social protection interventions.
Social protection programs are an effective way to reduce poverty in the developing world. A large body of evidence from around the world has shown that these programs can provide immediate relief to poor households, help them build assets and human capital, and avoid poverty in the long term. For example, a study [16] found that cash transfers in Latin America and the Caribbean had reduced poverty by an average of 2.5 percentage points. A study [17] highlighted evidence from the developing world that social protection programs, such as cash transfers, food assistance, and social insurance, have been shown to reduce poverty in several ways. They can provide immediate relief to poor households, helping them to meet their basic needs for food, shelter, and healthcare. They can also help to build assets and human capital, which can help households avoid poverty in the long term.
H4 – There is a significant relationship between social protection and poverty alleviation
This literature review offers a comprehensive examination of the interplay between Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with a specific focus on SDG 2 (No hunger), SDG 4 (Quality education), SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth), and SDG 17 (Social protection). While the review provides valuable insights from global perspectives and various studies, it becomes imperative to tailor the discussion to the Somali context. To address existing gaps, the study aims to delve deeper into the specific challenges faced by Somalia in achieving these SDGs, considering the socio-economic conditions unique to the region. Additionally, the interconnectedness of these goals remains underexplored, prompting an investigation into how these SDGs synergize to enhance poverty alleviation efforts within the Somali context. Incorporating local perspectives, experiences, and stakeholder involvement, particularly from government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and local communities, will further enrich the analysis. The review briefly touches upon empirical research findings, but the study seeks to provide a more in-depth examination of the methodologies and metrics used to measure poverty alleviation, addressing challenges and proposing improvements suitable for Somalia. A temporal analysis will be integral, assessing the evolution of poverty alleviation strategies and the impact of SDGs over time, incorporating historical perspectives and considering shifts in policy, socio-economic conditions, and external factors. By addressing these gaps, the research aims to contribute nuanced and context-specific insights that can inform policymakers, practitioners, and academics engaged in poverty alleviation efforts in Somalia.
In Figure 2, we present the conceptual framework guiding this survey, illustrating the Factors that Influence the Sustainability of Poverty Alleviation in Somalia.
Figure 2. Conceptual framework
This study utilized a quantitative research approach employing a descriptive research design. The quantitative approach was chosen as it allows for the statistical and numerical analysis of the impact of independent variables (No hunger, Quality of education, Decent work and economic growth and social protection) on the Dependent variable (poverty alleviation) in Somalia. The data collection aspect was carried out by the researchers through face-to-face and an online self-administered questionnaire, which can be filled out by respondents based on a judgemental sampling method. It is a non-random sampling method whereby the respondents are chosen based on their knowledge of the subject matter for research. The choice of a judgemental sampling method in this study is underpinned by several practical considerations that align with the unique characteristics and challenges of the research context in Somalia. Firstly, given the complex and dynamic nature of poverty alleviation initiatives and the specific focus on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Somalia, it is crucial to involve individuals with a nuanced understanding of the subject matter. Judgmental sampling allows for intentionally selecting respondents with expertise, experience, or direct involvement in poverty alleviation efforts and the targeted SDGs, ensuring that the data collected is informed and meaningful. Moreover, Somalia faces contextual intricacies, such as varying levels of access to technology and education, as well as regional disparities. Judgemental sampling allows the researchers to navigate these challenges by strategically selecting participants who can provide diverse perspectives while also considering the feasibility of conducting face-to-face and online self-administered surveys. Additionally, the quantitative nature of the research design necessitates a sample that can provide statistically significant results. In the absence of a comprehensive and easily accessible sampling frame, judgemental sampling becomes a pragmatic choice, ensuring that the selected respondents have the requisite knowledge to contribute meaningfully to the statistical analysis of the impact of independent variables on poverty alleviation. In all, 130 respondents participated in the study by completing the questionnaire.
This study adopts a cross-sectional research design, utilizing data collected simultaneously to provide a snapshot of the complex dynamics surrounding poverty alleviation in Somalia. The statistical technique employed for data analysis is Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) linear regression. OLS is chosen for its robustness in regression analysis and suitability for estimating relationships between independent variables (No hunger, Quality of education, Decent work and economic growth, and Social protection) and the dependent variable (poverty alleviation). The decision to use cross-sectional data is motivated by practical considerations, acknowledging the challenges of maintaining continuity in data collection over time, especially in a context as intricate as Somalia. The OLS method is computationally efficient, straightforward to implement, and economically feasible, making it an accessible choice within resource constraints. The regression model used in this study is as follows:
Y= α +β1X1 +β2X2+β3X3+β4X4+e
where,
Y=poverty alleviation
α = constant term
X1- SDG 2 (No hunger)
X2- SDG 4 (Quality of education)
X3- SDG 8 (Decent work & economic growth)
X4- SDG 17 (Social protection)
β1, β2, β3 = Beta coefficients that indicate the weight of every factor.
This study measures Factors influencing the sustainability of poverty alleviation. A total of 129 respondents were obtained for analysis.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents
|
Factors |
Percentage |
|
Gender |
|
|
Male |
83.7 |
|
Female |
16.3 |
|
Age |
|
|
18-35 |
89.9 |
|
36-50 |
10.1 |
|
51 and more |
0.00 |
|
Educational background |
|
|
Secondary school |
0.00 |
|
Diploma |
3.10 |
|
Batchelor degree |
30.9 |
|
Postgraduate |
66.0 |
|
Source of income |
|
|
Wage |
56.6 |
|
Income from farming |
0.00 |
|
Income from business |
15.5 |
|
Income from rent Others |
2.30 25.6 |
Based on Table 1 above, 83.7% of our respondents are male, while 16.3% are female. This is because, in Somalia, men dominate education, the workforce, and different aspects of life. 89.9 percent falls under the 18-35 age category. The concentration of respondents in the 18-35 age category may imply a homogeneity in perspectives and experiences. Younger individuals might have distinct outlooks on poverty alleviation compared to older demographics. Recognizing this age-related homogeneity is crucial when interpreting the findings, as it may not capture the full spectrum of challenges and priorities across different age groups. As for education, the majority of them (66 percent) has postgraduate qualification with maturity in understanding the concepts of sustainable development. The high percentage of respondents with postgraduate qualifications suggests a well-educated sample. While this may enhance the depth of responses and understanding of sustainable development concepts Finally, regarding the source of income, the data shows that the largest source of income of our respondents is wages, which accounts for 56.6%. This trend is influenced by the post-education choices of Somali youths, who, upon completing their studies, tend to prioritize seeking employment opportunities rather than initiating businesses or creating jobs. the reliance on wages may signify a certain degree of dependence on formal employment, which could potentially expose individuals to economic vulnerabilities. In economies with limited job opportunities or a high degree of informality, an overreliance on wage income might result in job insecurity and financial instability. Addressing this dynamic requires a bold exploration of policies that stimulate diversified economic opportunities, including the promotion of entrepreneurship and the creation of an environment conducive to sustainable job growth.
4.1 Reliability test
Cronbach's alpha, which is the reliability of any given number, was used in this study. Table 2 indicates the variables SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 8, SDG 17, and poverty alleviation were 0.623, 0.717, 0.774,0.789, and 0.782, respectively. These results mean the reliability measurements have high internal consistency as they exceeded 0.7 [18].
Table 2. Reliability test
|
SDG 2 |
0.623 |
|
SDG 4 |
0.717 |
|
SDG 8 |
0.774 |
|
SDG 17 |
0.789 |
|
Poverty alleviation |
0.782 |
4.2 Correlation test
The correlation between variables demonstrates that when the value of one variable shifts, the value of the other variable tends to shift in the same general direction. Table 3 reveals that Pearson's correlation coefficients for the four different constructs range from 0.433 to 0.708, indicating that there is a positive association between all of the variables. SDG 8 had the highest correlation coefficient towards SDG4, 0.708, while SDG 2 had a minor correlation coefficient towards SDG 2 showed 0.433.
4.3 Estimation of model parameters
The ordinary least squares (OLS) method was used in this study to demonstrate the relationship between all of our variables. The model is explained in the method section, and the outcome of the model's parameters may be found in Table 4 below.
As seen in the above estimate, SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 8, and SDG 17 have a positive and significant relationship with poverty alleviation in Somalia, which is significant at a 5% significance level. Thus, HI, H2, and H4 are accepted. This suggests that addressing issues related to food security, education, economic growth, and collaboration can effectively contribute to reducing poverty in the country. This relationship demonstrates how interrelated each of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is with one another and underlines how important it is to have a comprehensive approach to development. The model is fit to estimate the parameter. R-Square is 69%, indicating that the independent factors account for 69% of the variance in the dependent variable. The F-statistics are significant at the 1% level, demonstrating the joint significance of the variables.
The collinearity tolerance and VIF statistics were used to check for multicollinearity between the independent variables, and the collinearity tolerance of all variables is below one. All our valuables have less than 3 VIFs. Additionally, we examine the condition index, and it is lower than 30. No serial correlation issue exists in the data since the serial colerration test was performed, and the Durbin-Watson value was neither below 1.5 nor over 2.5.
Table 3. Correlation test
|
|
|
SDG 2 |
SDG 4 |
SDG 8 |
SDG 17 |
Poverty Alleviation |
|
Pearson Correlation |
SDG2 |
1 |
.433** |
.489** |
.487** |
.476** |
|
SDG4 |
.433** |
1 |
.708** |
.651** |
.565** |
|
|
SDG8 |
.489** |
.708** |
1 |
.751** |
.599** |
|
|
SDG17 |
.487** |
.651** |
.751** |
1 |
.615** |
|
|
Poverty alleviation |
.476** |
.565** |
.599** |
.615** |
1 |
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 4. Unstandardized coefficients
|
|
Unstandardized Coefficients |
|
||
|
Variable |
Beta |
Std. robust Error |
t-Statistic |
Prob. |
|
(Constant) |
1.206 |
1.696 |
0.711 |
0.478 |
|
SDG 2 |
0.217 |
0.096 |
2.260 |
0.026 |
|
SDG 4 |
0.198 |
0.104 |
1.903 |
0.059 |
|
SDG 8 |
0.171 |
0.111 |
1.544 |
0.125 |
|
SDG 17 |
0.295 |
0.111 |
2.665 |
0.009 |
Dependent Variable: Poverty alleviation
Poverty in Somalia is deeply rooted due to prolonged civil conflict, political instability, and environmental adversities. With around 70% of the population living in poverty, Somalia ranks sixth in Sub-Saharan Africa for poverty prevalence. In this paper, we examined the impact of SDGs 2, 4, 8, and 17 on poverty alleviation in Somalia, revealing compelling insights. The result indicates that all four goals contribute to poverty reduction in Somalia. The positive and significant relationships between these SDGs and poverty reduction offer a glimpse of the transformative power of sustainable development initiatives. These findings affirm that addressing poverty requires a holistic approach that addresses various dimensions of human well-being.
The findings of the study align with the theoretical framework and literature discussed earlier, which emphasized the interconnectedness of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their potential impact on poverty alleviation.
SDG 2 has a positive and significant relationship with poverty alleviation in Somalia. Its positive influence emphasizes the importance of sustainable agricultural practices and food security. Efforts to end hunger, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture have tangible effects on improving living conditions and lifting communities out of poverty. SDG 2 enhances the well-being of people in Somalia and helps lift them out of poverty. The positive and significant relationship between SDG 2 and poverty alleviation in Somalia aligns with the literature review, reinforcing the literature's emphasis on sustainable agricultural practices and food security as crucial elements of economic growth and well-being. The findings support the notion that addressing hunger and promoting sustainable agriculture can lead to improved living conditions and contribute to poverty reduction. Thus, H1 s accepted and this result aligns with the study of Omodero [7].
Similarly, SDG 4 has a positive and significant relationship with poverty alleviation in Somalia. The positive effect of SDG 4 on poverty alleviation indicates that efforts aimed at achieving SDG 4, which focuses on ensuring inclusive and quality education for all, contribute significantly to reducing poverty in the country by providing accessible and quality education. This goal equips individuals with the skills, knowledge, and opportunities necessary to break the cycle of poverty. Education can empower people to secure better employment, make informed decisions, and improve their living conditions. In Somalia, a nation that has faced political instability and conflict, quality education is crucial for rebuilding and developing society. As children and adults access education, they become better equipped to participate in the workforce, leading to increased income and improved livelihoods. Additionally, education can promote gender equality and social inclusion, enabling marginalized groups to access opportunities they might have been previously denied. The positive and significant relationship between SDG 4 and poverty alleviation in Somalia is consistent with the literature review, reinforcing the literature's emphasis on education as a key component of sustainable development. Quality education is identified as a means to break the cycle of poverty, empower individuals, and provide opportunities for socio-economic advancement. The findings reinforce the idea that education equips individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary for improved livelihoods. Thus, H2 s accepted, and This result aligns with the study of Liu et al. [11].
Moreover, SDG 8 has a positive and significant relationship with poverty alleviation in Somalia, although the relationship is weak. This relationship underscores the potential of inclusive economic growth and decent work to enhance well-being and reduce poverty. In the context of Somalia, where economic opportunities have been limited due to conflict and instability, SDG 8 plays a crucial role. By promoting economic growth and creating decent job opportunities, SDG 8 enables individuals to generate income and improve their living standards. Decent work not only provides individuals with a means to support themselves and their families, but it also fosters a sense of dignity and empowerment. Economic growth fueled by productive employment opportunities can reduce poverty through several mechanisms. As people secure stable jobs, they have a reliable source of income that helps them meet their basic needs, access education and healthcare, and make investments in their future.
Additionally, economic growth can stimulate local markets, encourage entrepreneurship, and attract investments, all contributing to poverty alleviation. In addition, SDG 8 is closely linked to other goals, such as quality education (SDG 4) and social protection for unemployment (SDG 17). Access to decent work and economic opportunities can lead to increased access to education and training, and it can also help reduce inequalities by providing marginalized individuals with pathways to social and economic advancement. The positive and weakly significant relationship between SDG 8 and poverty alleviation in Somalia aligns with the literature review, reinforcing the literature's emphasis on inclusive economic growth and decent work as crucial factors in enhancing well-being and reducing poverty. The findings suggest that economic growth, coupled with decent job opportunities, contributes to poverty alleviation by providing individuals with a stable income and fostering empowerment. Thus, H3 s accepted and this result aligns with the study of Loayza and Raddatz [14].
SDG 17 also contributes to poverty alleviation in Somalia. This study found that SDG 17 has a positive and significant effect on poverty alleviation in Somalia. This indicates that efforts towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 17 contribute significantly to the country's overall development and alleviation of poverty.
SDG 17 highlights the importance of collaboration among nations, governments, organizations, and stakeholders to address various challenges, including poverty. In the case of Somalia, a country that has faced prolonged conflict and instability, international cooperation and partnerships are vital to providing the necessary resources, expertise, and support for sustainable development initiatives. The positive and significant relationship between SDG 17 and poverty alleviation in Somalia supports with the literature review, reinforcing the literature's emphasis on the importance of global partnerships and social protection in addressing poverty. The study highlights the role of collaboration among nations, governments, organizations, and stakeholders in providing resources and support for sustainable development initiatives, aligning with the framework's emphasis on governance. Thus, H4 s accepted, and This result aligns with the study of Fiszbein et al. [17].
The study's findings carry important practical implications for stakeholders in Somalia, a nation endowed with arable land suitable for farming. The research underscores the necessity for a comprehensive approach to poverty alleviation, urging government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international partners to align interventions with multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, the positive and significant relationships identified in SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger), 4 (Quality Education), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), and 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) highlight key areas for targeted action. Stakeholders are encouraged to capitalize on the country's fertile land by investing in sustainable agricultural practices, ensuring food security, and improving the living conditions of the population. Quality education emerges as a pivotal factor, with a focus on reducing disparities and providing individuals with the skills to break the cycle of poverty. Additionally, fostering inclusive economic growth and decent work opportunities is crucial, necessitating policies that create stable employment, support entrepreneurship and contribute to overall economic advancement. The positive correlation between international collaboration (SDG 17) and poverty alleviation emphasizes the importance of engaging with the global community and seeking partnerships and resources to address the complex challenges posed by poverty. Good governance and social protection measures are highlighted as essential elements, urging stakeholders to prioritize transparency, accountability, and policies that safeguard vulnerable populations.
Despite the valuable insights this study provides into the relationship between Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and poverty alleviation in Somalia, several limitations must be acknowledged, potentially influencing the interpretation of results. Firstly, the study focuses on a select set of SDGs (2, 4, 8, 17), and while these are important, they only cover part of the spectrum of goals. Other SDGs may also contribute to poverty alleviation, and their exclusion from the analysis may limit the comprehensiveness of the findings. Secondly, External factors, such as global economic trends, geopolitical events, or natural disasters, were not explicitly accounted for in the study. These external influences could confound the identified relationships between SDGs and poverty alleviation.
Recognizing these limitations is essential for a nuanced interpretation of the study's results. It underscores the need for future research efforts to address these constraints, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of poverty dynamics in Somalia.
In this paper, we examined the impact of SDGs 2, 4, 8, and 17 on poverty alleviation in Somalia, revealing compelling insights. In all, 130 respondents participated in the study by completing the questionnaire. The collected quantitative data was then processed using SPSS for further analysis. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was employed to group the data based on their respective variables. The study found that SDG 2, SDG 4, SDG 8, and SDG 17 are all factors that contribute to poverty reduction in Somalia. This presents a unique opportunity to create a more holistic and sustainable approach to addressing poverty in the country.
The study's practical implications for Somalia underscore the need for a holistic approach to poverty alleviation, emphasizing alignment with multiple SDGs. Stakeholders should invest in sustainable agriculture, leveraging the nation's arable land, and prioritize quality education to break the cycle of poverty. Inclusive economic growth, supported by decent work opportunities, is crucial, and international collaboration (SDG 17) plays a vital role. Stakeholders are urged to prioritize good governance and social protection measures to ensure transparency, accountability, and safeguarding vulnerable populations in the pursuit of sustainable development.
Considering these outcomes, several recommendations emerge to enhance poverty alleviation endeavors in Somalia. Firstly, the government and policymakers should invest in sustainable agricultural practices (SDG 2) that not only ensure food security but also create job opportunities and income sources for impoverished communities. Secondly, the government should allocate resources to initiatives prioritizing quality education (SDG 4), aiming to equip individuals with the necessary skills for decent work (SDG 8). Special attention should be given to sectors such as agriculture and sustainable industries, ensuring that the workforce is adequately trained and prepared to contribute effectively to these sectors while improving overall economic prospects and reducing poverty. Furthermore, a concerted effort to address unemployment and underemployment through economic development (SDG 8) is vital, encompassing urban and rural areas. Lastly, strengthening partnerships (SDG 17) among government agencies, non-profit organizations, the private sector, and international entities is essential. Collaborative pooling of resources, expertise, and networks can yield more potent poverty alleviation strategies. This comprehensive approach, aligned with multiple SDGs, underscores the interconnected nature of sustainable development efforts.
Acknowledging the limitations identified in this study is imperative for refining future research efforts that build upon its findings. The study's focus on a subset of SDGs (2, 4, 8, 17) emphasizes the need for a more comprehensive exploration of the entire spectrum of goals to discern the interconnected nature of sustainable development initiatives. Future research should delve into the potential contributions of other SDGs to poverty alleviation in Somalia, ensuring a holistic understanding. To augment the study's contributions, future research could adopt integrated climate and agriculture studies, investigating the interplay between climate change, sustainable agriculture (SDG 2), and poverty alleviation in Somalia. This approach aims to develop strategies considering environmental sustainability, which is crucial in pursuing effective and resilient poverty alleviation interventions.
[1] Hanlon, J., Barrientos, A., Hulme, D. (2012). Just Give Money to the Poor: The Development Revolution from the Global South. Kumarian Press.
[2] Balvociute, R. (2020). Social assistance for poverty reduction in the EU Countries: An aspect of socio-economic sustainability. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 9(1): 469. https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2020.v9n1p469
[3] Bossert, W., Cato, S., Kamaga, K. (2022). Generalized poverty-gap orderings. Social Indicators Research, 164(1): 189-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-02950-5
[4] Gaffney, O. (2014). Sustainable development goals: Improving human and planetary wellbeing. Global Change, 82(1): 2023.
[5] Prosperity, S. (2016). Taking on Inequality. Washington, DC: World Bank.
[6] Oriola, E.O. (2009). A framework for food security and poverty reduction in Nigeria. European Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1): 132-139.
[7] Omodero, C.O. (2021). Sustainable agriculture, food production and poverty lessening in Nigeria. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 16(1): 81-87. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.160108
[8] Anowor, O.F., Ukweni, N.O., Ezekwem, S.O. (2013). Agricultural productivity and poverty alleviation: An econometric analysis. American Journal of Sustainable Cities and Society, 1(2): 109-129.
[9] Awan, M.S., Malik, N., Sarwar, H., Waqas, M. (2011). Impact of education on poverty reduction. International Journal of Academic Research, 3(1): 659-664.
[10] Spada, A., Fiore, M., Galati, A. (2023). The impact of education and culture on poverty reduction: Evidence from panel data of European countries. Social Indicators Research, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03155-0
[11] Liu, F., Li, L., Zhang, Y., Ngo, Q.T., Iqbal, W. (2021). Role of education in poverty reduction: Macroeconomic and social determinants form developing economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28: 63163-63177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15252-z
[12] Azunu, R., Mensah, J.K. (2019). Local economic development and poverty reduction in developing societies: The experience of the ILO decent work project in Ghana. Local Economy, 34(5): 405-420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269094219859234
[13] Kreinin, H., Aigner, E. (2022). From “Decent work and economic growth” to “Sustainable work and economic degrowth”: A new framework for SDG 8. Empirica, 49(2): 281-311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-021-09526-5
[14] Loayza, N.V., Raddatz, C. (2010). The composition of growth matters for poverty alleviation. Journal of Development Economics, 93(1): 137-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.03.008
[15] Ravallion, M., Datt, G. (1996). How important to India's poor is the sectoral composition of economic growth? The World Bank Economic Review, 10(1): 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/10.1.1
[16] World Bank. (2015). The State of Social Safety Nets 2015. The World Bank.
[17] Fiszbein, A., Kanbur, R., Yemtsov, R. (2014). Social protection and poverty reduction: Global patterns and some targets. World Development, 61: 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.04.010
[18] Nunnally, J.C. (1978). An overview of psychological measurement. In Clinical Diagnosis of Mental Disorders, pp. 97-146. Springer, Boston, MA. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2490-4_4
