OPEN ACCESS
The construct ‘Mental Readiness’ has been used to explain variations in peak performance within different task environments. In particular, research, conducted in diverse work settings such as sports, military and medicine, integrated mental readiness dimensions to increase human performance in critical task episodes. Mental readiness is a complex construct which encompasses sub-dimensions such as attentional control, goal-setting, relaxation, activation, self-confidence, self-talk and imagery. So far, mental readiness has not been used to predict traffic safety and driving performance of young drivers in particular. However, young drivers are involved in a huge amount of traffic accidents and therefore represent a major threat to traffic safety. One explanation is that the insufficient driving performance of young drivers is due to a lack of mental readiness when they enter the street. In this paper, we present the development of a mental readiness measure for student drivers. Hence, 167 student drivers were surveyed regarding mental readiness dimensions, driving performance and perceived stress before and after their final driving test. Data analysis revealed acceptable and even excellent internal consistency of these subscales. A validation study with four safety-related criterion measures (objective driving performance, subjective assessment of driving performance, perceived stress during test preparation, and perceived stress during driving test) showed mixed results. While some scales did not significantly correlate with driving behavior and stress indicators, other subscales like attentional control revealed good prediction coefficients. The current results can be used to train young drivers in raising their mental readiness level which could affect driving performance and road safety positively. In addition, the transfer of the central outcomes of this study to other safety-critical task environments, are discussed.
attentional control, driving performance, mental readiness, stress, traffic safety
[1] Statistisches Bundesamt. (n.d.). Anzahl der Verkehrstoten im Straßenverkehr in Deutschland von 1991 bis 2015. In Statista - Das Statistik-Portal, 2015, available at https:// de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/185/umfrage/todesfaelle-im-strassenverkehr/. (accessed 29 November 2016).
[2] DeutscherVerkehrssicherheitsrat, available at http://www.dvr.de/betriebe_bg/daten/ unfallstatistik/de_jungeerwachsene.htm. (accessed 29 November, 2016).
[3] Hoeger, R., Seidenstücker, J. & Marquardt, N., Mental models and attentional processes in car driving. Driver Behavior and Training II, ed L. Dorn, Aldershot (UK): Ashgate, pp. 443–449, 2005.
[4] Orlick, T. & Partington, J., Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, pp. 105–130, 1988. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2.2.105
[5] Orlick, T., In Pursuit of Excellence. How to Win in Sport and Life through Mental Training. Human Kinetics: Champaign, 2000.
[6] Lohasz, P.G. & Leith, L.M., The effect of three mental preparation strategies on the performance of a complex response time task. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, pp. 25–34, 1997.
[7] Gould, D., Weiss, M.R. & Weinberg, R.S., Psychological characteristics of successful and nonsuccessful Big-Ten wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, pp. 69–81, 1981. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.3.1.69
[8] Mahoney, M.J., Gabriel, T.J. & Perkins, T.S., Psychological skills and exceptional athletic performance. The Sport Psychologist, 1, pp. 181–199, 1987. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.1.3.181
[9] Tynes, L.L. & McFatter, R.M., The efficacy of “Psyching” strategies on a weight-lifting task. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, pp. 327–336, 1987. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01186283
[10] McDonald, J., Orlick, T. & Letts, M., Mental readiness in surgeons and its links to performance excellence. Surgery, Journal of Pediatric Orthpaedics, 15, pp. 691–697,
1995. https://doi.org/10.1097/01241398-199509000-00027
[11] Talbot-Honeck, C. & Orlick, T., The essence of excellence: mental skills of top classical musicians. Journal of Excellence, 1, pp. 61–75, 1998.
[12] McCaffrey, N. & Orlick, T., Mental factors related to excellence among top professional golfers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, pp. 256–278, 1989.
[13] Gould, D., Greenleaf, C., Guinan, D., Dieffenbach, K. & McCann, S., Pursuing performance excellence: lessons learned from olympic athletes and coaches. Journal of Excellence, 4, pp. 21–43, 2001.
[14] Wang, J., Mental strategies for peak performance. Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 19, pp. 22–25, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2006.10591201
[15] Filby, W.C.D., Maynard, I.W. & Graydon, J.K., The effect of multiple-goal strategies on performance outcomes in training and competition. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, pp. 230–246, 1999. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209908404202
[16] Weinberg, R., Burton, D., Yukelson, D. &Weigand, D., Goalsetting in a competitive sport: An exploratory inverstigation of practicers of collegiate athletes. The Sport
Psychologist, 7, pp. 275–289, 1993. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.7.3.275
[17] Locke, E.A. & Latham G.P., Goalsetting theory, 1990 (Chapter 1), New Developments in Goalsetting and Task Performance, eds. E.A. Locke & G.P. Latham, Routledge: New York, pp. 3–15, 2013.
[18] Locke, E.A., Relation of goallevel to performance with a short work period and multiple goal levels. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, pp. 512–514, 1982. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.67.4.512
[19] Lerner, B.S. & Locke E.A., The effects of goal setting, self-efficacy, competition and personal traits on the performance of an endurance task. Journal of Sport and Excerise Psychology, 17, pp. 138–152, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.2.138
[20] Anshel, M.H., Weinberg, R. & Jackson, A., The effect of goal difficulty and task complexity on intrinsic motivation and motor performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 15,
pp. 159–176, 1992.
[21] Kyllo, L.B. & Landers, D.M., Goal setting in sport and excerise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy. Journal of Sport and Excerise Psychology, 17, pp. 117–137, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.2.117
[22] Crocker, P.R.E. & Graham, T.R., Coping by competitive athletes with stress: gender differences and relationships with affect. The Sport Pschologist, 9, pp. 325–336, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.9.3.325
[23] Hardy, L., Jones, J.G. & Gould, D., Understanding psychological preparation for sport: theory and practice of elite performers. Wiley & Sons: Chichester, 1996.
[24] Hackfort, D. & Munzert, J., Mental Simulation (Chapter 1). Handbook of research in applied sport and excercise psychology: international perspective, eds. D. Hackfort, J.L. Duda & R. Lidor, Sheridan Books: Morgentown, pp. 3–18, 2005.
[25] Williams, J.M. & Harris, D.V., Relaxation and energizing techniques for regulation of arousal (Chapter 15). Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance, ed. J.M. Williams, McGraw-Hill: New York, pp. 285–305, 2006.
[26] Hall, E.G. & Hardy, C.J., Ready, aim, fire – Relaxation strategies for enhancing pistol marksmanship. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, pp. 775–786, 1991. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.72.3.775-786
[27] Hermery, D., The pursuit of sporting excellence. A study of sport’s highest achievers. Human Kinetics Books: Champaign, 1986.
[28] Parker, L. Sealey, R.M. & Swimbourne, A., The effect of prepatory arousal on hand grip strength and 50 metre freestyle swim performance_paper, available at http://digitalcommons.
wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1273&context=ijesab (accessed 9 March 2017).
[29] Zaichkowsky, L.D. & Baltzell, A., Arousal and performance (Chapter 12). Handbook of Sport Psychology. Second Edition, eds. R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas & C.M. Janelle, Wiley & Sons: New York, pp. 319–339, 2001.
[30] Cramer, R.J., Neal, T.M.S. & Brodsky, S.L., Self-efficacy and confidence: theoretical distinctions and implications for trial consultation. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61, pp. 319–334, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017310
[31] Vealey, R.S., Understanding and enhancing self-confidence in athletes (Chapter 22). Handbook of sport psychology. Second Edition, eds. R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas & C.M. Janelle, Wiley & Sons: New York, pp. 550–565, 2001.
[32] Bandura, A., Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
[33] Gill, D.L. & Williams, L., Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Excercise. Third Edition. Human Kinetics: Champaign, 2008.
[34] Bull, S.J., Albinson, J.G. & Shambrook, C.J., The Mental Game Plan: Getting Psyched for Sport. Sports Dynamics: Eastbourne, 1996.
[35] Ming, S. & Martin, G.L., Single-subject evaluation of a self-talk package for improving figure skating performance. The Sport Psychologist, 10, pp. 227–238, 1996. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.10.3.227
[36] Weinberg, R., Does imagery work? effects on performance and mental skills. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 3, pp. 1–21, 2008. https://doi.org/10.2202/1932-0191.1025
[37] Mahoney, M.J. & Avener, M., Psychology of the elite athlete: an exploratory study.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, pp. 135–141, 1977. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01173634