Risk and Safety Assessment of Purse Seine Operations in Small Fishing Ports of East Java

Small-scale fisheries are a cornerstone of food security and socio-economic resilience in developing coastal regions, particularly in Indonesia, where millions rely on marine resources for livelihoods and nutrition. These fisheries provide direct access to affordable protein and indirect income opportunities that sustain local economies [1, 2]. Among them, small-scale purse seine operations play a pivotal role in East Java’s coastal economy, supplying pelagic species such as sardines, mackerel, and tuna to domestic markets while providing employment for fishers, processors, and traders. Beyond their economic contribution, these fisheries reinforce social cohesion and cultural identity through shared labor and the communal distribution of catches [2]. Moreover, diversified livelihood strategies that integrate fishing with supplementary income activities enhance fishers’ adaptive capacity to withstand environmental and market fluctuations [3-5]. Consequently, small-scale purse seine fisheries function not only as a critical source of food and income but also as a social safety net underpinning the resilience of coastal communities.

Despite this importance, small-scale purse seine operations remain among the most hazardous occupations worldwide. Fishers frequently work under unsafe conditions that heighten exposure to physical injury, fatigue, and unpredictable weather [6-8]. Common accidents include musculoskeletal strain from manual hauling, slips and falls on wet decks, rope entanglements, and drowning. These risks are compounded by inadequate protective equipment, limited vessel stability, and insufficient training in occupational safety [9, 10]. The absence of health insurance and weak enforcement of maritime safety regulations further exacerbate fishers’ vulnerability [11]. Combined with fluctuating catches and unstable income, these challenges heighten socio-economic fragility among fishing-dependent communities [12, 13]. Thus, improving safety management in small-scale fleets is essential not only for occupational protection but also for sustaining livelihoods and community well-being.

The central dilemma in small-scale purse seine fisheries lies in the coexistence of economic dependency on fishing and high operational risk. Manual operations—setting, pursing, hauling, and sorting—expose crews to repetitive strain, collisions, and fatigue during high-intensity tasks. While mechanization could alleviate physical burdens, most small vessels lack the capital or technical capacity for such upgrades. This creates a paradox in which economic survival depends on activities that simultaneously threaten workers’ safety. Moreover, the absence of integrated, context-specific safety frameworks hinders systematic risk management. In East Java, many small ports have limited institutional capacity to monitor compliance or deliver technical training, underscoring the urgent need for structured approaches to identify, evaluate, and mitigate operational hazards while balancing productivity and safety.

Globally, structured risk assessment methodologies have been increasingly adopted to improve safety in artisanal fisheries. Frameworks such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), originally designed for food safety, have been adapted to identify and manage hazards in fishing operations [14]. Similarly, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification framework links ecological sustainability with operational requirements, encouraging adherence to environmental and occupational best practices [15]. However, these frameworks differ in scope and data requirements, and they are not always directly transferable to data-limited, small-port contexts. In this study, HACCP/MSC are referenced as overarching examples of risk-based management, whereas the operational risk ranking is conducted using a simplified Frequency Index–Severity Index (FI–SI) matrix because it is feasible under limited incident records and can be implemented through structured observation and stakeholder reporting. Participatory safety programs that incorporate local ecological knowledge have also proven effective in increasing compliance, as they align interventions with cultural norms and economic realities [16]. The success of these integrated models underscores the value of combining scientific and community-based perspectives to achieve lasting safety and sustainability improvements.

However, in Indonesia, particularly within small fishing ports of East Java, there remains a lack of comprehensive assessment linking vessel characteristics, operational patterns, and occupational risk [17]. Prior research has primarily focused on biological sustainability, gear selectivity, and socio-economic outcomes, with limited empirical evaluation of the frequency and severity of work-related hazards specific to purse seine fisheries. Without such analyses, it is difficult to establish evidence-based frameworks or policy recommendations tailored to local operational contexts.

This study addresses this gap by conducting a structured risk and safety assessment of small-scale purse seine operations in East Java’s coastal ports. The objective is to generate a port-level baseline that (1) identifies and ranks the most relevant operational hazards using an FI–SI risk matrix, (2) summarizes fleet and operational characteristics linked to hazard exposure, and (3) evaluates ecological risk proxies using bycatch and maturity composition. Using the FI and SI to quantify and classify operational hazards, the research evaluates fleet characteristics, fishing practices, and incident data to develop a baseline for port-level safety management. Given that FI and SI are semi-quantitative and depend on reported experience and observation, the resulting risk categories are intended for prioritization within the local artisanal context rather than as absolute probability estimates; this limitation is considered when interpreting results and formulating recommendations. The findings aim to provide critical insights into the interaction between operational safety, fishing behavior, and sustainability—offering a foundation for more integrated and adaptive management strategies in Indonesia’s small-scale fisheries.

3.1 Fleet characteristics and operations

Small-scale purse seine fleets in East Java operate nearshore with wooden vessels (10–30 GT) and compact crews (3–8 persons), undertaking mostly one-day trips as shown in Figure 2. Two-boat coordination is common, improving net deployment and retrieval efficiency while shortening time at sea. These patterns are consistent with regional profiles for Southeast Asian small-scale fleets and support rapid turnover to local markets [25, 26]. However, the compressed tempo of one-day trips can concentrate high-intensity deck tasks into short time windows, which is relevant when interpreting the hazard profile reported.

Figure 2. The small-scale purse seine used in Tambakrejo

3.2 Catch composition and bycatch

Landings were dominated by small pelagics: Rastrelliger kanagurta, Auxis rochei, Scomberoides tol, Katsuwonus pelamis, and Euthynnus affinis. The catch was highly selective, with very low non-target take (Table 1). Overall bycatch rate measured 0.4% and discards were negligible, aligning with evidence that purse seines—when properly operated—produce lower bycatch than many alternative gears [27, 28]. From a safety perspective, low discard volumes also imply less time spent sorting unwanted catch, which can modestly reduce exposure to cuts/punctures during handling.

Table 1. Main and bycatch categories for purse seine landings

3.3 Size distribution and maturity structure

The length distributions of the main target species provided significant insights into the maturity structure of the catch (Table 2). For Auxis rochei (Length of maturity/Lm = 25.8 cm), the length distribution showed a peak at 26.94–28.74 cm, with a substantial proportion of fish caught at or above the size at first maturity; approximately two-thirds of sampled individuals were ≥ Lm, resulting in a mature-skewed profile. For Scomberoides tol (Lm = 26 cm), the size distribution ranged from 24.0 cm to 51.5 cm, with the catch overwhelmingly composed of mature fish (≈ 98% ≥ Lm). In contrast, for Euthynnus affinis (Lm = 42.3 cm), all observed individuals in this dataset were below Lm (Table 2), indicating a potential growth-overfishing concern for this species within the sampled landings. Katsuwonus pelamis was fully composed of individuals exceeding the size at first maturity, with dominant length modes in the range of 56.42–58.82 cm. Collectively, these outcomes indicate species-specific differences in maturity composition: several targets were mature-skewed, while Euthynnus affinis requires attention from a size-management perspective.

Table 2. Percentage of immature individuals in the catch for the main target species (based on Lm)

Although the majority of catches were within or above maturity thresholds for several species, the retention of all fish—including individuals below Lm—remains a concern. The absence of release practices for undersized fish increases the long-term risk of growth overfishing and may shift fishing behavior toward more sets and/or longer searching effort to maintain landings. This can increase operational intensity and cumulative exposure time on deck, thereby elevating the probability of onboard accidents. This feedback may be further amplified under long-term climate variability (e.g., more frequent rough-sea windows and disrupted seasonality), which can constrain safe operating days and pressure crews to fish during marginal conditions. This finding underscores the need to integrate biological sustainability with occupational safety considerations in the management of small-scale purse seine fisheries.

3.4 Occupational risk profile (Frequency Index–Severity Index–matrix)

The risk-scoring framework used in this study applies a semi-quantitative FI–SI matrix to prioritize safety controls across purse-seine deck operations. FI summarizes how often a hazard is encountered, and SI summarizes typical consequences; combining them yields a relative risk category (low/medium/high) used for prioritization (Table 3). Because this approach is designed for small-port, data-limited settings, the risk levels are interpreted as practical priorities for control measures rather than absolute probabilities.

Table 3. Operational risk and safety management matrix for small-scale purse seine operations in East Java

3.5 Safety–sustainability linkages

Two-boat systems can raise catching efficiency and improve maneuvering/situational awareness, yet also compress high-intensity tasks that elevate entanglement and strain risks if coordination falters [29, 30]. In this study, length–frequency profiles show mature-skewed catches for several targets; however, all fish, including individuals < Lm, were retained. Persistent retention of sub-Lm fish is a classic pressure toward growth overfishing and is often exacerbated by small mesh or non-selective settings [31]. If sub-Lm fish increasingly dominate the stock, maintaining the same landed volume will likely require longer time at sea and more sets, thereby increasing exposure to rope burns, slips, and entanglement incidents on wet, cluttered decks [32, 33]. Strengthening release practices for obvious juveniles, aligning mesh to selectivity targets, and scheduling shorter, daily trips can therefore link biological sustainability with reduced accident exposure [34].

3.6 Risk profile and prioritization

Observed injury patterns in comparable fleets are dominated by frequent minor events (rope/hand abrasions, slips) and rare but severe outcomes (man-overboard (MOB), crush injuries) [35, 36]. Applying the FI–SI matrix standardizes prioritization across crews: frequent/moderate injuries receive near-term ergonomic and procedural controls, while low-frequency/high-severity events trigger critical safeguards such as PFD adoption, exclusion zones, and call-and-response during pursing/brailing [37]. This aligns with adaptive, participatory risk assessment that blends local practice with structured tools to reduce subjectivity and sustain compliance [18, 24].

3.7 Operational practices that co-deliver quality, safety, and value

For one-day trips typical of East Java ports, rigorous 3C+Q handling (clean, careful, cool-chain, quick), layered icing, and rapid landing minimize deck time spent on deteriorating fish and reduce knife/fin handling injuries—while protecting freshness, histamine safety, shelf life, and price [38-41]. Where bathymetry is complex, keeping sets off sensitive shallow features lowers snag/entanglement risk and avoids habitat contact, while deeper deployments reduce benthic interactions without shifting risk onto unprepared crews [42]. Finally, aligning mesh size to minimum size regulations helps limit juvenile retention at the source, lowering future effort requirements and cumulative exposure hours. Taken together, these adjustments integrate stock protection with occupational risk reduction—an approach consistent with co-management and continuous improvement in small-scale purse-seine fisheries [43].

This study highlights the significant risks and safety challenges faced by small-scale purse seine fisheries in East Java, focusing on operational hazards, bycatch issues, and the ecological impacts of selective fishing practices. The findings show that while selective fishing methods have been designed to improve sustainability, they often inadvertently cause shifts in marine community structures and reduce genetic diversity, which may impact the long-term health of fish stocks. Moreover, seasonal environmental factors, such as oceanographic variability, further complicate the safety of fishing operations and increase the likelihood of accidents at sea.

The study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by integrating risk management frameworks with participatory governance strategies, offering practical recommendations for improving safety outcomes and ensuring the sustainability of these fisheries. The use of risk matrices and adaptive management approaches could help mitigate operational risks and enhance the resilience of fishing communities. Future research should focus on refining these safety management frameworks and exploring the impacts of climate change on the safety and sustainability of small-scale fisheries in the region.