Effect of Forest Rights Acts 2006 on the Livelihoods of Tribals: An Empirical Study of the Juang Tribe in Keonjhar District, Odisha

2.1 Study sample

The study was conducted in Keonjhar district, especially on one of the primitive tribes in Odisha, ‘Juang’ located in the Banspal, Harichandanpur, and Telkoi blocks (Figure 1). As the target population Juang tribe, it is relatively homogeneous with respect to socio-economic characteristics, which reduces the likelihood of significant variation in key variables. Therefore, this study has taken 117 as representative sample households to achieve more stability and consistency of regression estimates.

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2.2 Data collection

Data on the socio-economic status of Juang households were collected using an interview schedule. Households were selected randomly through a reliability-based sampling technique. The researchers encountered several challenges during data collection, stemming from the isolated nature of the community, significant communication barriers, the forest-dwelling lifestyle of the tribe, and difficulties in encouraging participants to respond and articulate their socio-economic conditions. As a result, participant observation was incorporated to gain a deeper understanding of their livelihoods.

The study method began with preparation, where survey questions were developed based on consultations with experts and stakeholders, followed by the training of research assistants to ensure proper data collection. The fieldwork phase involved conducting scheduled interviews through personal interactions, where the prepared questions were administered to participants. After data collection, the analysis stage commenced, which included transcribing interview responses into SPSS (v20) for statistical processing, organizing transect walk results into structured tables, and employing various analytical tools to interpret the findings. A final report was then compiled to present the study's outcomes. The lessons learned from this process were documented to guide and improve future research endeavours, ensuring more efficient and effective methodologies in subsequent studies.

2.3 Data analysis

The reliability and validity of the interview schedule were assessed through several steps. First, question clarity was tested by presenting the questionnaire to ten tribal respondents. Second, Cronbach's alpha was used to measure internal consistency, yielding a score of 0.87 for the questionnaire items, indicating strong reliability. Third, topics were reviewed for their relevance to the research objectives, and sections were labelled according to the field survey structure. The accuracy of the results was cross-validated with a subset of participants to ensure they reflected reality. For data analysis, various statistical and econometric tools were utilized, including regression analysis and multilevel logistic regression, as appropriate.

The data were analyzed using a multilevel regression model, which allows for the estimation of varying regression effects across different levels. The model is specified by the following equation:

$\begin{gathered}y_{i j}=\beta_0+\beta_1 X_{1 i j}+\cdot \beta_2 X_{2 i j}+\cdots+\cdot \beta_n X_{n i j}+\mu j+ e_{i j}\end{gathered}$ (1)

To validate the use of the multilevel regression approach, the author first estimated a null model with no predictors to assess the baseline variance across clusters (villages). The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was calculated at 0.17, indicating that 17% of the total variance in household income was attributable to between-village differences. This supports the appropriateness of a multilevel modeling framework. Moreover, the model’s goodness-of-fit was evaluated using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). The AIC of the final multilevel model was 1635.01, which showed a significant improvement over the null model (AIC = 1298.42), thus confirming the added explanatory value of the included predictors.

The dependent variable is tribal household income, primarily derived from forest-based, agricultural, and other sources of income. Other sources of income include labor and other activities that compensate for income losses caused by poor implementation of the Forest Rights Act and are essential for sustaining livelihoods. These economic losses stem from forest regulations that conflict with the traditional livelihood practices of tribal communities, forcing a decline in household income and pushing individuals to seek alternative sources of sustenance. In the absence of such restrictive laws, tribal populations would continue to rely sustainably on forest resources, maintaining both economic stability and cultural continuity. However, when displaced from their customary means of subsistence without viable alternatives, they often face increased impoverishment.

The independent variables include demographic and asset-based household characteristics as explained in Table 1.

Table 1. Explanation of the independent variables

The results indicate a lack of evidence that government initiatives to increase forest areas enhance household income. Research suggests that forest conservation strategies may negatively impact local populations by restricting access to essential resources and livelihoods [5, 6]. This study thus adds to the existing body of literature by highlighting the absence of positive effects from forest rights legislation on community livelihoods. Moreover, restrictions on land use rights and resource benefits within forest areas point to the role of forest rights laws as external factors that shape livelihoods, warranting their consideration as mediating variables in future studies.

The tribal communities, especially those residing in the Keonjhar district, typically inhabit small, geographically isolated settlements and have developed ways of life that are closely attuned to their forested environments. In the lowland areas, agriculture constitutes the primary source of livelihood. However, in the more rugged, mountainous regions, the reliance shifts toward hunting and gathering due to the difficult terrain. As a result, their economic activities are shaped more by environmental constraints than by a deep-rooted dependence on the forest itself. This often contributes to a cultural and social disconnection from the broader mainstream society. Numerous influences, including age, education, number of earning members, landholding size, and government policies, significantly affect their livelihoods, impacting access to resources, services, and infrastructure. Historical forest policies, both colonial and post-colonial, have often undermined tribal rights, transferring authority to governmental bodies [7]. Although initiatives like joint forest management aim to encourage community participation, the centralized nature of existing forest laws has restricted social justice and equality in tribal communities [8]. Contradictory narratives persist: one depicts tribes as protectors of natural forests, while the other claims that tribal practices threaten conservation efforts [9]. These conflicting views continue to influence the legal and social dynamics between tribes and forest resources, affecting access. Significant obstacles to successful implementation still exist despite new legislation aimed at improving the situation of tribal populations, calling for extensive reforms to address issues with tribal rights and livelihood [10].

The Juang tribe, which is classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in Odisha, makes its living mostly from shifting farming. Locally referred to as "Dahi," "Kaman," or "Tila," this technique is typical among primitive tribal communities in the hills and forested regions of Odisha [11]. While documentation of the Juang's agricultural practices is sparse, studies on other tribes indicate a reliance on traditional agricultural and animal husbandry knowledge [12]. Nevertheless, the Juang encounter socio-economic challenges, such as low income and malnutrition, which may hinder their agricultural productivity [13].

Research conducted on the Tharu tribe reveals that while various agricultural and animal husbandry practices are prevalent, advanced techniques, including seed processing and pest management, are rarely employed within tribal communities [12].

The secluded mountainous areas of Keonjhar present significant obstacles for tribal communities in accessing markets and healthcare. Poor road infrastructure, limited transport options, and the remoteness of healthcare facilities restrict their access to vital services [14]. Although these communities often depend on traditional crafts and local resources for their livelihoods, their limited product range and market access can result in economic stagnation [15].

Despite various approaches to tribal development, including isolationist and integrative strategies, their effectiveness remains debatable [16]. However, market engagement can improve skills, raise awareness, promote positive social changes, and benefit society [14]. The FRA 2006 seeks to protect the rights of Indian communities that live in forests, especially in areas like Odisha and Jharkhand [17]. However, the competing demands of livelihood sustainability and environmental protection have made it difficult to implement the FRA in Odisha, especially in protected areas [18].

Examining the application of the law in Keonjhar, particularly concerning the Juang community, reveals complexities in the claims process and forest dependency. The successful implementation of the FRA is hampered by issues such as unequal information distribution, poor coordination, undemocratic involvement, and a lack of accountability [18]. Even while Odisha has advanced more than Jharkhand, both states still face challenges such as a lack of workers and low claimant awareness. By securing land tenure over forest regions and reaffirming rights to forest products, the Forest Rights Act could improve livelihood options for those who live in forests [17].

It is worth noting that we were unable to obtain comprehensive details regarding the restrictions imposed by forest rights laws on access to forest resources, due to a lack of on-ground data and mobility constraints on the researcher within the forest. This limitation intersects with the study's findings, and as such, the results reflect an average impact of the Forest Rights Act on household income, considering the interplay of other factors influencing household income activities, such as restricted access to resources and labour. The use of multilevel regression models remains limited in identifying the factors influencing the interaction between government legalisations and tribal livelihoods.