Women’s Adaptation Strategies for Ensuring Food Security to Response Climate Change: Good Practice from Rural Swamp in Indonesia

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), climate change is a significant climate change that occurs over a certain period of time. Climate change can also be interpreted as drastic changes in temperature, changes in rainfall, changes in wind patterns, and so on. The main causes include global warming which occurs due to emissions of Green House Gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide, methane and other gases from various sources [22].

International articles related to climate change discuss topics regarding analysis of the impact of climate change on the environment and agroforestry [23], the potential of renewable energy to reduce climate change [24], national commitment and implementation of climate change [25], the socio-political context of climate change policy [26], global warming mitigation strategies [27], the role of the media in reporting climate change [28], climate change as a construction of reality [29], building climate resilience through disaster preparedness [30], and the influence of forest fires and climate change [22].

In 2023, through a competitive superior research scheme (funding from universities), researchers conducted a study on climate change in rural areas with the theme Community-Based Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation through the Climate Village Program (Proklim). The findings of this research indicate that the role of women is very significant. Therefore, it will be followed up with fundamental research in 2024 which will examine more comprehensively the strategies and adaptive capacity of rural women in facing climate change to achieve family food security. The originality of this fundamental research lies in the use of women's and socioecological perspectives in understanding the topics studied.

This research aligns with global and national priorities in addressing climate change by emphasizing the pivotal role of women in rural areas. Women, particularly in agrarian communities, often bear the brunt of climate related challenges due to their reliance on natural resources for livelihood and their roles in ensuring family welfare and food security. However, their potential as key agents of change in climate adaptation and mitigation remains underexplored.

Several studies support the importance of integrating gender perspectives into climate change strategies. For example, previous study highlights that empowering women with knowledge and resources enhances household resilience to climate shocks [31]. Similarly, emphasizes that gender-inclusive policies in climate action lead to more sustainable outcomes by leveraging women's traditional knowledge and social networks [32]. Furthermore, more studies underline the effectiveness of community based approaches, like Proklim in fostering local capacity to address climate impacts while ensuring inclusivity and equity [33, 34]. The socioecological perspective used in this study bridges the gap between environmental changes and their social dimensions, particularly focusing on how rural women navigate the intersection of ecological vulnerabilities and societal roles. This approach not only enriches the understanding of adaptive behaviors but also informs policy development by providing a nuanced view of rural realities. 

To build upon this, several recent studies further emphasize the need for gender-sensitive adaptation strategies in climate change policies [35]. The disproportionate impacts of climate change on women and marginalized groups in Southeast Asia are well documented, where social norms, restricted access to resources, and limited decision-making power exacerbate vulnerabilities [36]. Therefore, effective climate adaptation strategies must adopt gender-transformative approaches to ensure inclusivity and resilience. Participatory methods incorporating diverse perspectives, including gender and social inclusion, are essential in shaping robust climate policies [37].

However, low female representation and entrenched power dynamics can impede effective participation, highlighting the need for more inclusive and equitable platforms. Local and community-based adaptation models, such as community forestry in Myanmar and collective actions in Bangladesh, have shown promise in fostering women's engagement and knowledge [38]. However, further institutional support and inclusive decision-making processes are required. These efforts underscore the critical role of gender-sensitive adaptation in enhancing community resilience and providing a more comprehensive approach to climate adaptation. Integrating these gender-inclusive perspectives into policy development ensures more equitable and sustainable outcomes, particularly in rural and resource-dependent communities where the impact of climate change is most acute [39].

By building on the findings of the 2023 study, the 2024 research aims to deepen the understanding of adaptive capacities through a participatory methodology, engaging rural women as co-researchers and contributors to knowledge production. This approach aligns with sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). The outcomes of this research are expected to contribute significantly to the body of knowledge on climate change adaptation, providing practical recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders to design gender-responsive programs that enhance community resilience while ensuring food security at the household level.

The concept of food security has developed and changed over the last 50 years, where initially the introduction of four pillars of food security (availability, access, utilization, and stability) has evolved into six pillars (plus agency and sustainability) [40]. Food security is important for economic development and growth, social interaction, political stability, and security in society [41].

4.1 Signs of climate change and their effects

The signs of climate change in rural areas are diverse and manifest in various environmental and socio-economic impacts. These changes are often seen in shifting weather patterns, including changes and shifts in the dry and wet seasons. For three consecutive years, these patterns have continued, affecting agriculture, water availability and biodiversity. Villagers reported significant temperature, rainfall and seasonal changes that directly affect their livelihoods and local ecosystems.

Our research shows that climate change in rural areas can be physically observed, such as prolonged droughts, unpredictable rainfall patterns and rising temperatures. Based on Table 1, these conditions have caused significant disruptions in agricultural activities, including increased frequency of crop failures due to unpredictable weather, making it difficult for farmers to determine planting and harvesting times. Rubber production, which is highly dependent on climate stability, has also experienced significant declines due to heat stress affecting tree physiology [44]. Similarly, oil palm yields have declined due to changes in rainfall and temperature patterns that disrupt flowering and fruiting cycles.

Table 1. Signs of climate change and women effects

Source: Result Analysis

Previously, fertile agricultural land has become unproductive due to soil degradation exacerbated by flooding or extreme drought. Local vegetation, such as purun plants traditionally used in crafts and economic activities, is becoming increasingly scarce, reducing opportunities for income diversification [45]. These issues are in line with previous study which shows that subsistence farmers in developing countries are particularly vulnerable to climate stress because they rely on livelihoods that are highly sensitive to climate change [46].

Beyond agricultural challenges, climate change is also impacting public health. Outbreaks of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and respiratory disorders are increasing, fueled by waterlogging caused by floods and the accumulation of waste. These vector borne diseases thrive in warmer conditions while deteriorating air quality caused by forest fires exacerbates respiratory problems [47]. These findings are consistent with research which explains how climate change creates conditions that favour the spread of infectious diseases, disproportionately impacting vulnerable rural populations [48]. The impacts of climate change on women in rural areas are significant. As those often responsible for ensuring the household's availability of food, water and fuel, women face more significant challenges due to increasingly limited resources. Declining agricultural output forces them to spend more time earning additional income or gathering necessities, reducing their opportunities to access education or participate in community decision-making processes [49].

Research shows that women in developing countries are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their roles in agriculture, caregiving and household resource management [50]. For example, the scarcity of purun crops has not only affected the village economy but has also significantly impacted women traditionally involved in weaving to support the family income [51]. In addition, disease outbreaks have increased their responsibilities as caregivers, which in turn increases physical and mental stress [52].

These findings are consistent with research on agricultural vulnerability in rural communities in Africa and South Asia, which has shown similar impacts in other rural areas. For example, declining crop yields due to erratic rainfall patterns, as experienced in rubber and oil palm cultivation in Southeast Asia, highlight the challenges to food security posed by limited access to climate adaptive agricultural practices [53].

In addition, the loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity, as found in studies in Latin America, is disrupting traditional livelihoods that depend on local biodiversity. This impacts economic resilience and the sustainability of cultural practices associated with traditional knowledge systems. Similar public health challenges are being identified in rural Bangladesh, where flooding and rising temperatures are exacerbating the spread of waterborne and vector-borne diseases [54]. These findings reinforce the link between climate change and increased vulnerability in the public health sector.

4.2 Rural women's knowledge of climate change

Rural women’s understanding and interpretation of climate change are often rooted in their lived experiences and everyday interactions with the environment. They associate climate change with prolonged dry spells, erratic weather patterns, extreme heat, and water scarcity. Through their farming and household management roles, rural women observe how traditional seasonal signs are becoming less reliable. This firsthand knowledge is critical, based on lived experience rather than formal education or scientific frameworks. The following chart illustrates how women understand, interpret, and make sense of climate change while exploring its impact on them and the sources of their knowledge about climate change.

Based on Table 2, the impacts of climate change on these women are profound, often exacerbating existing vulnerabilities. Crop failures and land droughts threaten food security, while reduced incomes and purchasing power limit their ability to invest in adaptive strategies or meet basic needs. In addition, the pressure to secure scarce water resources and manage health problems arising from extreme weather events increases their physical and emotional burdens. This aligns with research from developing countries highlighting how rural communities, especially women, face compounding risks from climate-related stressors [55]. For example, research on rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia shows similar challenges, highlighting the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized groups [56].

Table 2. Rural women's knowledge of climate change

Source: Result Analysis

Sources of knowledge for rural women about climate change vary and depend on context. Traditional media, such as radio and TV, play an important role, often conveying simplified messages about weather patterns or adaptation measures. Social media and community networks, such as discussions with neighbours or relatives, also contribute to their understanding, although the depth and accuracy of information from these sources can vary. Comparing this to other studies, women in rural Indonesia, for example, often rely heavily on oral traditions and local wisdom, which may lack the specificity needed for effective climate adaptation [57]. This highlights a knowledge gap, as rural women’s understanding of climate change, while rooted in lived experience, often lacks scientific basis, limiting their ability to understand long-term climate dynamics and implement robust adaptation strategies fully.

This knowledge gap significantly affects women’s lives and capacity to adapt to climate change. While their experiential knowledge is valuable for identifying immediate risks, it may not be sufficient to address systemic issues such as changes in agricultural cycles or the need for water conservation technologies. The literature on rural women’s climate awareness highlights that women’s adaptive capacity is often constrained by limited access to formal education [58], training [59], and resources [60]. For example, studies in India and Kenya have shown that empowering women through targeted education programs and access to technology significantly increases their ability to mitigate climate impacts [61, 62].

Although rural women have significant experiential knowledge about climate change, there are apparent gaps in their ability to connect these observations to broader adaptation strategies. Bridging this gap requires integrating their insights with scientific knowledge through accessible and culturally sensitive educational programs. Addressing this gap enhances women’s adaptive capacity and contributes to broader community resilience, as women often play a key role in sustaining rural livelihoods [63]. These knowledge gaps, if not addressed, limit the development of effective long-term adaptation strategies, as women may struggle to implement proactive measures that require scientific understanding and technical knowledge.

4.3 Activities of rural women in ensuring family food security

Women are important in maintaining family welfare and food security, especially in rural areas. In various agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, women make significant contributions through economic activities that support family needs and community sustainability. However, these contributions are often under-recognized or under-appreciated in development policies and programs.

This study aims to understand the role of women in economic activities, covering agricultural sectors such as oil palm, rubber, and rice, as well as non-agricultural jobs such as trade and crafts. These contributions impact increasing household incomes and supporting food security through diversification of food sources, financial management, and conservation of local resources. Based on Table 3, in the agricultural sector, women actively participate in oil palm plantation management, rubber tapping, and rice cultivation. For example, their involvement in oil palm plantations helps increase household incomes, especially during the harvest season, which allows for the purchase of staple foods and diversification of diets. However, monoculture practices in oil palm often limit land for subsistence crops, so sustainable approaches such as intercropping are needed to support food security and reduce environmental impacts.

Table 3. Activities of rural women and their impact on food security

Source: Result Analysis

In addition, rural women earn income from rubber tapping and latex processing, the proceeds of which are often used to support agricultural activities or saved as family savings. Although the incomes are relatively small, these activities help meet basic food needs and provide financial stability, especially when combined with agroforestry practices. Women’s role in planting, weeding, and harvesting rice is also critical, as the harvest meets family food needs and provides additional income through the sale of surplus. However, the undervaluation of women’s labour and limited access to agricultural resources highlight the importance of policies favouring women to improve productivity and food security.

In addition, women are also involved in seasonal work, such as picking chillies or grass, which provides additional income during difficult times. This diversification reduces dependence on a single source of income but reflects a broader gender gap in the rural labour market. Fair wages and training programs can improve their economic security. Meanwhile, women's adaptability is evident in their roles in non-farm sectors, such as trading, handicrafts, vegetable collection, and village administrative work, all of which contribute significantly to household well-being. By selling goods at local markets, women earn a stable income to buy food and invest in education. Their participation in markets challenges traditional gender norms, fosters economic independence, and promotes sustainability through sourcing local products.

Furthermore, women's involvement in purun craft-making preserves cultural heritage and provides additional food security and savings income. Women in our research sites also collect vegetables from communal or forest lands, providing direct nutritional benefits and additional income. Women also work in village offices, earning a stable salary and strengthening food security through consistent household income. These roles also promote gender equality by increasing women's visibility in leadership and supporting community resilience.

Our research findings reveal the close relationship between gender, food security and sustainability. Women contribute to household food security through diversified livelihoods, which provide resilience to economic shocks. However, systemic barriers such as unequal resource access and lack of decision-making power limit their impact. Addressing these inequalities is essential to empower women and maximize their influence on the well-being of their families and communities.

These findings align with previous research showing that women play a significant role in household food security through their involvement in various economic activities in the formal and informal sectors [64]. Women's contribution to food security is often more significant than that of men, especially in ensuring the availability and access to nutritious food [65]. However, as women often face systemic barriers such as limited access to resources such as land, credit and technology, which limit their effectiveness in managing diversified livelihoods [66]. Strengthening women's rights to resources and increasing their participation in decision-making can significantly improve household food security and environmental sustainability. Therefore, women's empowerment is key to achieving long-term food security and sustainability goals [67].

4.4 Climate change and food supply disruption in swampy areas: Women’s adaptation strategies

Rural swamp areas are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, such as water level fluctuations, declining agricultural yields, and biodiversity loss. These impacts directly affect food security, which is often the responsibility of women in the household. In this situation, women play an important role through adaptation strategies to maintain food security while facing limited resources. The efforts made by women can be seen more clearly in Figure 1.

1.png

Figure 1. Climate change and food supply disruption in swampy areas: Women’s adaptation strategies

The adaptation strategies carried out by women play an important role in household economic adaptation, especially amid conditions full of limitations. They demonstrate creativity and resilience through various strategies, including economic diversification. One form of diversification is purun crafts, where traditional skills increase family income while preserving local culture. However, limited production scale and difficult market access often limit its potential.

Women are also involved in rubber farming and trading, which shows a pragmatic adaptation to local livelihoods. However, this work has a high labour intensity, which can cause physical exhaustion, especially if women also have to take care of the household. Another strategy is home-based farming, where women grow vegetables and herbs for kitchen needs. In addition to increasing family food security, this step also reduces household expenses. Unfortunately, its impact on income remains limited. In addition, to economic diversification, women implement cost-saving measures to manage household finances. One step is to reduce the intensity of consumption, although this can potentially reduce the quality of family nutrition in the long term. Reducing the purchase of goods that are considered non-essential shows women's priority for the family's basic needs. On the other hand, informal financial solutions are also often used, such as reliance on high-interest loans from mobile banks. This reflects women's limited access to more affordable formal financial services, which often traps them in a cycle of debt.

This phenomenon of change has an impact on the social and economic aspects of rural communities. Socially, there have been changes, including an increasing number of people borrowing money from loan sharks and mobile banks (Mekar BTPN) with interest of 30% - 40%, and thefts of goods and livestock have increased relatively. However, women also take advantage of social relationships through food barter with neighbours, evidence of social solidarity in overcoming economic difficulties.

Community-based practices, such as food barter and household cooperation, reflect strong social solidarity. In addition to helping families cope with food shortages, this step also strengthens social ties, which are crucial in dealing with crises. This adaptation strategy has advantages and limitations. Economic diversification reduces dependence on a single source of income, while home-based farming supports sustainable food security. Community solidarity also strengthens social capital and lightens the burden on individuals. However, reliance on high-interest loans increases financial risks, and the labour intensity of strategies such as farming and craft-making often compromises women's health. Crafts and home-based farming income is often insufficient to meet more extensive household needs. In addition, increasing women's workloads without addressing gender inequalities creates additional stress.

Women's strategies demonstrate significant strengths, particularly in economic diversification, food security, and community solidarity. However, challenges such as reliance on high-interest loans, labour intensity, and limited scalability must be addressed. Recommendations that can be implemented include strengthening access to formal finance by providing low-interest microcredit to reduce reliance on mobile banks. In addition, training and marketing can be provided to improve the quality of purun craft products and expand market access. Infrastructure support is also important, such as providing superior seeds and agricultural technique training to support home-based farming. Finally, a more equitable division of labour must be implemented by involving other family members, including men, to reduce women's workload. With these steps, the effectiveness of women's adaptation strategies can be increased while addressing the systemic challenges they face.

The adaptation strategies implemented by these women demonstrate several significant strengths. Economic diversification, such as involvement in crafts and agriculture, helps reduce dependence on a single source of income. This directly reduces economic risk from the impacts of climate change or economic fluctuations. In addition, sustainability in home-based farming practices is another advantage, where growing food in the home garden increases food security and reduces dependence on markets. Community solidarity through barter and mutual assistance is also a significant strength, as it strengthens social networks that are crucial during times of crisis.

However, these strategies also have several limitations. Reliance on high-interest loans is one significant financial vulnerability, where women are often trapped in a cycle of debt that burdens their financial condition. In addition, this adaptation strategy requires high labour intensity, which can lead to physical and mental exhaustion, especially when women have other responsibilities, such as taking care of the household. The scalability of this strategy is also limited, as the output from home-based farming and purun crafts is often insufficient to meet all household needs. Furthermore, this strategy increases women's workload without addressing the systemic inequalities at the root of the problem.

Through this evaluation, although women's adaptation strategies have great potential, more systemic interventions are needed to address the limitations and challenges. This includes a more inclusive approach, reducing workloads, and providing equitable access to financial services.

More systemic interventions are relevant at the local level and can be compared with women's adaptation practices across countries. Women's experiences addressing economic and environmental challenges across contexts show similar patterns, with creativity and solidarity at the heart of their strategies. This comparison provides a broader perspective on how women in different parts of the world address similar challenges while offering opportunities to learn from each other and share best practices. In Bangladesh, women engage in gardening and poultry farming to address food insecurity due to flooding [68]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, women leverage informal savings groups and labour exchange systems [69]. Meanwhile, in the highlands of Indonesia, women are increasing their incomes through weaving and small-scale agroforestry [70].

Although women in swampy areas demonstrate resilience and adaptability, additional efforts are needed to address resource constraints and challenges posed by climate change. Adaptation strategies need to be further developed to achieve long-term sustainability. However, successful adaptation is often linked to external support. In Bangladesh, a low interest microfinance program has economically empowered women [71]. In Kenya, a government initiative has provided drought-resistant seeds, reducing dependence on unpredictable rainfall [72].

Women in rural areas have demonstrated remarkable resilience in adapting to the impacts of climate change on food supplies. However, their strategies are often less sustainable in the long term and require external support to address structural vulnerabilities. Collaborative efforts by governments, NGOs, and local communities are essential to ensure that women's contributions to household and community resilience are effectively supported and scaled up [73].