JOURNAL METRICS

CiteScore 2023: 2.2 ℹCiteScore:

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Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) 2023: 0.637 ℹSource Normalized Impact per Paper(SNIP):

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qqtu_pian_20240428144739.png

Concentrations of Indoor PM2.5 and PM10 Worldwide

Concentrations of Indoor PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ Worldwide

Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Ambiental, Universidad Nacional Intercultural de la Selva Central Juan Santos Atahualpa, Chanchamayo 12855, Perú

Facultad de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva, Tingo María 10131, Perú

Escuela Académica Profesional de Ingeniería Ambiental, Universidad Continental S.A.C., Huancayo 12000, Perú

Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Electrónica, Facultad de Ingeniería Electrónica - Sistemas, Universidad Nacional de Huancavelica, Huancavelica 09001, Perú

Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Ambiental, Universidad Nacional de Ucayali, Pucallpa 25000, Perú

Corresponding Author Email:

mreategui@uniscjsa.edu.pe

Received:

7 October 2024

Revised:

4 December 2024

Accepted:

10 December 2024

Available online:

30 December 2024

| Citation

ijsdp_19.12_38.pdf

OPEN ACCESS

Abstract:

Indoor air pollution has gained importance in recent years due to its direct contact with humans and its greater potential for harm. In this context, the objective of the study was to compare indoor PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations with the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline. The methodology of the PRISMA 2020 statement was used, the bibliographic review was in 5 digital databases. The annual growth rate of scientific production was determined using the digital calculator Calcuvio, while data analysis was carried out with Microsoft Office Excel and VOSviewer. Approximately 80% of studies did not exceed the WHO guideline; the most studied indoor environment and pollution sources were homes and road traffic/cigarette smoke. The year and country with the highest scientific output were 2014 and the United States, respectively, with an annual growth rate in scientific production (1984–2024) of 13.49%. The most frequently appearing keyword was "particulate matter." The study concludes that corrective measures should be implemented to reduce particulate matter indoors, given that humans spend the majority of their lives in these environments.

Keywords:

air, indoor, particulate matter, PRISMA, VOSviewer

1. Introduction

Globally, the deterioration of air quality has become a major challenge to control due to the release of high concentrations of pollutant gases from motor vehicles and industrialization, as well as a lack of environmental awareness [1, 2]. Air pollution occurs both outdoors and indoors; the latter is a complex mixture of suspended particles with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm (PM₁₀) and 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) [3], as well as pollutant gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [4-10].

Rapid urbanization and lifestyle changes have led people to spend most of their day in indoor environments (homes, workplaces, and leisure spaces), consequently increasing their exposure to pollutants [11-14]. Anthropogenic activities contributing to indoor air pollution include smoking, cooking, burning candles, cleaning, construction materials, and the use of traditional heating methods (coal and wood) [15-17]. Additionally, outdoor pollutants that can infiltrate indoor environments are caused by motor vehicles, industrial facilities, road dust, and biomass burning [18, 19].

Air pollution predominantly affects the most vulnerable populations (pregnant women, children, and the elderly), compromising the immune system in patients with respiratory, asthmatic, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, indoor air pollution is responsible for one million deaths worldwide, and the United Nations Environment Programme determined that in 2020 and 2021, it accounted for 3.2 million and 4 million premature deaths, respectively [20, 21].

The regulations applicable to both outdoor and indoor air quality are set by the WHO, which presents guidelines of an average of 15 µg/m³ and 45 µg/m³ for PM_2.5and PM₁₀, respectively, over a 24-hour period [18].

Thus, the objective of the research was to compare the concentrations of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ indoors with the WHO guidelines. In this context, the following research questions (RQ) were posed:

RQ1: What proportion of studies exceed the WHO guideline?

RQ2: Which indoor environment and source of pollution were the most studied?

RQ3: In which year and country was there the highest scientific output?

RQ4: What is the annual growth rate of scientific production?

RQ5: What keywords appear most frequently?

2. Material and Methods

The methodology used was the review applying the PRISMA 2020 statement [22], which will aid in better preparing, understanding, and summarizing the review [23, 24].

2.1 Document eligibility

In the inclusion, the following were applied: (1) scientific research articles, (2) research in the world (all languages), (3) in all years up to September 2024, and (4) studies with PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ results expressed in μg/m³. This was all aimed at covering a larger number of articles on the topic.

Regarding the exclusion criteria, the following were discarded: (1) duplicate articles among the search equations, (2) closed-access articles, (3) articles whose titles or abstracts did not meet the study's objectives, and (4) other types of scientific publications.

The criteria were used to delimit the research in depth and to obtain a greater number of articles for the review.

2.2 Origin of the information and search strategies

The information collected was in databases (Table 1), which began on June 3 and ended on September 23, 2024. The aforementioned databases were chosen because they have the largest number of journals in the world and in different fields of studies [25, 26]. Two search equations were used:

Table 1. Search strategies

Digital Databases	Search Equations
Taylor & Francis	TITLE-ABS-KEY (“particulate matter” AND indoors) TITLE-ABS-KEY (PM AND indoors)
Scopus
Wiley
ScienceDirect
Ebsco (Academic Search Ultimate, Biological & Agricultural Index Plus, Environment Complete, GreenFILE and Veterinary Source)

2.3 Choice and collection of information

In the selection of articles, 2 groups were formed (5 authors per group) so that each group searched for a search equation. The doubts that arose in the process were resolved at the end of the selection process. For the schematization of the selection of the articles, we used the online tool where the diagram was created (Figure 1) [27]. At the beginning, 17047 items were identified and by applying the criteria, 158 were subtracted.

image003.png

Figure 1. Flow diagram of article selection

2.4 Compound annual growth rate (CAGR)

Indicates the percentage of annual growth in scientific production (1984 to 2024), and with the help of an online calculator [28], the value was determined using the formula:

$C A G R ~ \%=100 *\left(\left(\frac{V_f}{V i}\right) ^{ \frac{1}{t}}-1\right)$

where, V_i= Initial value; V_f= Final value; t = Years.

2.5 Data analysis

The information was downloaded from the database in CSV format in order to determine the distribution of the investigations. For the analysis of keyword co-occurrence, VOSviewer 1.6.19 software [29] is useful in the scientific field to plot bibliometric networks in many colors to understand co-authorship, countries and keyword co-occurrence relationships [30, 31].

3. Results and Discussions

Table 2 shows the 158 studies along with their respective particulate matter concentrations, of which 35 (PM_2.5) and 29 (PM₁₀) studies exceed the WHO guideline.

Table 2. Comparison of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations with WHO guideline

WHO 24 Hour Average		Refs.
PM_2.5 15 µg/m³	PM₁₀ 45 µg/m³	Refs.
11	X	[32]
X	78**	[33]
X	42	[34]
57.78**	106.19**	[35]
X	9840**	[36]
21.10**	28.90	[37]
19.52**	34.91	[38]
11.40	26.80	[39]
12.75	X	[40]
14	X	[41]
X	386**	[42]
X	32.60	[43]
13.50	X	[44]
22.50**	X	[45]
47**	X	[46]
15.45**	5.63	[47]
43.56**	X	[48]
X	1422.67**	[49]
X	24.50	[50]
2.60	X	[51]
13.45	X	[52]
111.31**	128.13**	[53]
35.83**	X	[54]
28.80**	X	[55]
82.65**	56.25**	[56]
8.40	13.95	[57]
8.60	X	[58]
12.10	18.50	[59]
241.05**	392.81**	[60]
X	90.83**	[61]
95**	X	[62]
X	68.25**	[63]
7	35	[64]
548**	2085**	[65]
6.90	X	[66]
37.40**	118.20**	[67]
7.30	X	[68]
34.15**	28.90	[69]
37.85**	19.20	[70]
X	81.50**	[71]
178**	X	[72]
88**	110**	[73]
93**	X	[74]
97.81**	X	[75]
5.80	X	[76]
204**	X	[77]
588**	X	[78]
151**	X	[79]
30.10**	35	[80]
X	15	[81]
61**	363**	[82]
109**	181**	[83]
88**	X	[84]
77**	X	[85]
X	33.67	[86]
X	77.20**	[87]
19**	53.70**	[88]
38.40**	18.10	[89]
33**	X	[90]
7	X	[91]
144.50**	X	[92]
20.90**	X	[93]
9.28	X	[94]
113**	X	[95]
23**	X	[96]
55.23**	X	[97]
71.90**	X	[98]
53**	X	[99]
97**	X	[100]
62**	X	[101]
68**	75**	[102]
X	54.60**	[103]
86.72**	X	[104]
343.33**	X	[105]
45.50**	X	[106]
70**	X	[107]
3.10	8.20	[108]
34.69**	50.94**	[109]
86.20**	320**	[110]
243**	X	[111]
34**	X	[112]
X	31.10	[113]
56**	X	[114]
112.51**	X	[115]
30**	X	[116]
201**	305**	[117]
55.20**	X	[118]
X	73.30**	[119]
503**	X	[120]
35.20**	27.40	[121]
71.70**	X	[122]
13.30	35.40	[123]
135.60**	X	[124]
112**	X	[125]
6.30	83.56**	[126]
12.80	X	[127]
56.33**	X	[128]
X	40	[129]
173**	153**	[130]
483**	X	[131]
36.42**	X	[132]
13.96	X	[133]
X	40	[134]
186.50**	X	[135]
212.01**	263.24**	[136]
177**	X	[137]
259**	X	[138]
7.71	X	[139]
253.45**	X	[140]
8.80	X	[141]
13	X	[142]
60.1**	93.20**	[143]
48.86**	X	[144]
41**	43	[145]
14.60	X	[146]
24.90**	X	[147]
20**	X	[148]
5.20	X	[149]
166.40**	X	[150]
5581**	X	[151]
14.10	27.50	[152]
29.50**	X	[153]
3.24	X	[154]
X	59.70**	[155]
53**	57**	[156]
7.50	X	[157]
17.30**	X	[158]
434.52**	X	[159]
34**	X	[160]
25.98**	31.02	[161]
35.95**	67.73**	[162]
52.20**	X	[163]
32.40**	X	[164]
78**	123.60**	[165]
795**	X	[166]
65.3**	92.90**	[167]
109**	X	[168]
203**	X	[169]
11.63	16.59	[170]
24**	24.90	[171]
10	15	[172]
41**	79.40**	[173]
40.72**	X	[174]
3.90	9.60	[175]
291.70**	X	[176]
10.80	X	[177]
10.40	X	[178]
75.30**	X	[179]
15.34**	X	[180]
X	50.30**	[181]
3869.98**	322.32**	[182]
49.60**	X	[183]
23.90**	X	[184]
142.30**	X	[185]
18.21**	25.53	[186]
18.10**	X	[187]
13.80	X	[188]
83**	X	[189]

**: Exceeded; X: Not Specified, that is to say, the information was not found in the article.

The indoor environments where PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations were most frequently measured are homes and schools, with 96 and 30 studies (Figure 2), respectively. This can be attributed to the importance given to these types of environments, where people spend between 60% and 70% of their time [190, 191] in their homes, with the highest percentage among the elderly [192, 193]. Additionally, in schools, particulate matter is often transported on students' shoes, which can increase concentrations under humid conditions due to wet soil [152, 194]. The concentration of particulate matter could potentially be reduced by changing footwear before entering the study environment [195].

Out of the 158 studies, 100 did not report the source of pollution. On the other hand, the most commonly reported sources of pollution were road traffic and cigarette smoke, each with 13 studies (Figure 3). The significance of studies on road traffic lies in the fact that adults spend approximately 1.5 hours per day in their cars [193], which represents critical exposure points to pollutants [192]. Furthermore, homes are generally built close to highways and other high-traffic routes [194, 195], significantly contributing to atmospheric pollution [196], as road dust is the type of dust that researchers often study worldwide [197-200].

Cigarettes contain nicotine, which is the main component of tobacco smoke. This toxic compound accumulates in the air or on surfaces (as dust) [201, 202], remaining in the environment for days or months [203]. Even six months after former smokers quit, homes can still be contaminated with tobacco smoke [204, 205]. In this regard, due to the detriment to indoor air quality and the health effects that it causes, there are several studies on cigarette smoke [206].

The years with the highest scientific output are 2014 and 2018, with 15 and 12 studies, respectively (Figure 4). On the other hand, the annual growth rate of scientific production is 13.49%, indicating slow but steady growth.

The countries with the highest scientific publications are the United States and China, with 32 and 22 studies, respectively (Figure 5). This coincides with the review of PM_2.5and PM₁₀ concentrations due to fireworks [207]. The United States is one of the countries with the highest number of premature deaths, with approximately 60000 annually [208]. Additionally, 40% of its population lives in areas affected by wildfires, and it has the highest number of vehicles per capita [209, 210]. In China, 17% of deaths are attributed to air pollution, with approximately 4400 daily deaths [211]. Furthermore, economic growth and urbanization have made it one of the countries with the highest PM_2.5 concentrations [212-214]. Additionally, the number of vehicles in China has been steadily increasing, reaching 372 million in 2020, making it a significant source of air pollution [215].

Figure 6 shows keywords with a minimum of 6 occurrences, and the ones with the largest number of appearances are "particulate matter" and "indoor air pollution," with 57 and 52 occurrences, respectively. Additionally, four clusters were formed (blue, yellow, green, and red).

image005.png

Figure 2. Indoors

image006.png

Figure 3. Sources of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ pollution

image007.png

Figure 4. Evolution of scientific production per year

image008.png

Figure 5. Evolution of scientific production per country

image009.png

Figure 6. Keyword bibliometric network

4. Conclusions

In the studies reviewed, approximately 80% did not exceed the WHO guideline. In this context, it is necessary to implement targeted strategies for each type of indoor pollution activity to further reduce this percentage. The home and school were the locations with the highest number of studies conducted, as they are places where people spend most of their lives. This underscores the importance of implementing corrective measures to reduce particulate matter concentrations. Additionally, the primary sources of pollution identified were road traffic and cigarette smoke.

The United States and China are leaders in addressing this topic, as with most air pollution research. In contrast, South and Central America have fewer studies; most countries in this region are developing nations, which often lack stringent enforcement of environmental policies.

Acknowledgment

To the Universidad Nacional Intercultural de la Selva Central Juan Santos Atahualpa for its support in carrying out the study.

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