Peatlands and Their Relationship with Poverty Levels in Riau Province

2.1 Study area

The research was conducted at the Peat Hydrological Unit (PHU) in Riau Province. Riau Province has 59 peat hydrological units in Riau Province. A peat hydrological unit is an area of peat ecosystem located between two rivers, between a river and the sea, and/or in a swamp. Peat is an organic material formed naturally from incompletely decomposed plant remains with a 50 cm or more thickness and accumulates in swamp areas (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Map of the distribution of peat hydrological units in Riau Province

2.2 Procedures

The research used collaborative techniques involving a work team of government representatives from the central government, regional government, private sector, and universities. Data was collected from both primary and secondary. Data collection is carried out to collect various data and information from various parties, followed by verifying conditions through field surveys. The type of data required consists of spatial and non-spatial data. Spatial data includes peat hydrological unit designation maps, administrative maps, peat depth maps, and forest area designation maps. Non-spatial data includes regional statistical documents, regional development plans, peat restoration plan documents, strategic environmental studies, and various scientific publications.

2.3 Data analysis

The data analyzed are data from several districts/cities in Riau. The data is representative of the existence of peat according to the characteristics of the region and social and economic issues such as poverty rates in Riau Province. The data obtained were analyzed statistically, descriptively, and spatially. Some of the data obtained, both secondary data and primary data, were subjected to statistical analysis in the form of regression analysis to see the relationship between the variables analyzed, such as the area of peat land with the percentage of poverty in several areas of Riau. Spatial data analysis was carried out using the overlay technique using the Geographic Information System Mapping application. The results of the data analysis were carried out to obtain information about the characteristics of the peat ecosystem and the main problems in the protection and management of peat ecosystems in Riau Province, as well as the relationship between peat ecosystems and socio-economic problems such as community poverty. Data analysis was then carried out descriptively exploratively based on the data that had been processed and through a series of Focus Group Discussions and Public Consultations involving many parties.

4.1 Peatland in Riau Province

The peat hydrological unit is one ecosystem, so there is PHU, which are cross-administrative areas across districts and provinces. The administrative approach is a form of setting planning and development implementation policies by the government based on the distribution of administrative areas [14]. A holistic ecological approach must be carried out through collaboration between local governments. Ecosystem-based environmental management requires socio-ecological transformation [15]. Socio-ecological transformation is carried out using an ecosystem landscape approach through cross-regional collaboration. PHU is a peat ecosystem between 2 rivers or one river or sea. PHU, with a depth of >300 cm, is generally in the middle. Meanwhile, the boundaries of water bodies and their banks tend to have shallower peat depths [16]. Based on peat depth data, it is known that not all areas of the peat hydrological unit in Riau Province are peatlands. Of all PHUs, there are 20.54% that have a depth of <50 cm. KHU areas with peat depths <50 cm has a better potential for cultivation utilization than other peat depths [17].

Utilization of the Peat Ecosystem must be carried out by maintaining the hydrological function of the peat. Water level is an important hydrological parameter for peat [18, 19]. Based on the results of field verification in 126 locations spread across 59 PHU, it is known that 52 points have a TMAT value >40 cm, 2 points have a TMAT value =40 cm, and 72 points have a TMAT value <40 cm. The water level in peatlands is influenced by several factors, including rainfall, biophysical conditions (peat depth, fiber content, and bulk weight), drainage distance, and surrounding surface channels [20]. The deeper the groundwater level in peatlands, the drier the surface layer of peat will be. Groundwater levels can also have a significant influence on soil moisture. Peat moisture will maintain biophysical conditions so that it does not trigger significant degradation and fires [21]. The peat water level must be maintained at less than 40 cm [22]. Peatland fires mainly occur if the water depth in the peatland is >40 cm. The critical groundwater level is 40 cm below the peat surface [22]. Groundwater levels in peatlands must be maintained to prevent peatland fires in dry and degraded peatlands.

During 1990-2020, forested land cover decreased, except for plantation forests and non-forests [23]. Changes in land cover are caused by a complex of various factors that encourage increased land-clearing activities. The causes of land change can be divided into basic causes and direct causes. The direct cause is direct human activity for land use purposes. The basic causes are processes that trigger land clearing, such as increases in human population growth rates or the consequences of development policies [24]. Another peatland problem is forest and land fires. Forest and peatland fires always occur yearly in Riau Province, especially during the dry season. Data shows that the indicative area of peatland fire scars in Riau Province during 2018-2020 ranged from 11.099,61-62,736.31 ha/year [25]. The most widespread fires occurred in 2019, with longer dry seasons than in 2018 and 2020 [26]. Land-clearing activities generally cause fires. This activity triggers disruption of the hydrological balance of the peat [27]. Burned peatlands are usually dry peatlands. Dry peat is caused by the loss of water content in the peat. The water content in peat can be seen based on groundwater level parameters. The deeper the groundwater level in peatlands, the drier the peat surface, so the potential danger of peatland fires is higher [28]. The level of peat decomposition also influences peat fires. Speed of decomposition of the peat layer has a strong relationship with the wetness level of the peat material, the depth of the peat, the type of litter, and the maturity of the peat [29]. The loss of water content in peat will cause the peat to become aerobic, triggering accelerated decomposition and subsidence [30]. Climate change and human activities dominate the long-term trend in triggering peatland fires [31]. Groundwater levels between 30 cm and 50 cm significantly affect soil moisture [32-34]. However, the water level between 50 and 80 cm did not experience significant changes. The peak of peatland fires occurs when the groundwater level is at a critical condition, namely >40 cm [35]. So, the safe water level to prevent fire is 40 cm below the peat surface.

4.2 Challenges of peat ecosystem management

Identifying peat ecosystem management problems is necessary to focus more on dealing with the most pressing problems [36]. Ecosystems are related to a region's poverty level [37]. Good management of an ecosystem will improve the economy of the community around that ecosystem [38]. Several districts in Riau Province dominated by peat land have quite high levels of poverty because it requires greater costs to carry out development activities on this land compared to non-peat land. Soil in drained peatlands contains a large source of nitrogen oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) [39]. The suitability of peatlands for agricultural land must take into account the water level in the peatlands. Water levels as high as <30 cm can increase the productivity of horticultural crops while reducing soil CO₂ emissions but without causing the loss of CH₄ to the atmosphere, both in conditions of CO₂ concentrations in the environment and when they are high [40]. Fires often occur in peatlands during the dry season, so the peat becomes very dry, or fires can be caused by human activity in peatland conversion activities [41]. Burning peat releases a lot of carbon into the air, which negatively impacts the environment [42]. Peatlands are also very difficult to extinguish if a fire occurs compared to other ecosystems.

Meanwhile, peat ecosystems are often faced with other problems, such as conflicts over land use. Many tropical peat swamp forests have been converted to increase agricultural, plantation, and industrial production, resulting in large losses of peat carbon, especially in the Asia-Pacific region [43]. Peatlands in various countries, such as Indonesia, are experiencing rapid degradation due to the expansion of oil palm plantations [44]. Potential trade-offs between economic benefits and environmental sustainability are often the underlying issue of conflicts [45]. Peatlands' interests in providing ecosystem services often clash with other interests, such as those of social and economic segments of society, thus causing conflict. This underlies the four problems and makes it a strategic issue for peat ecosystem management.

Peat with a depth of >200 cm requires actual inventory, identification, and mapping of peat depth. To determine the top of the peat dome that needs to be protected. The top of the peat dome is a peat area with a depth of more than 3 m and functions as a source of peat water hydrological reserves. The top of the peat dome has the largest organic volume and functions to store carbon and water. Peatlands are the largest source of soil carbon reserves stored for thousands of years in wet conditions [46]. The availability of water in peat determines its biophysical resilience. Loss of water in the peat will cause the peat to dry out and rot very quickly. So, the peat becomes damaged and easily burns [47] The top of the peat dome can naturally absorb and store more water to supply the water needs below [48]. Peat water content is a key variable in the ecohydrological and biogeochemical cycles that can control greenhouse gas emissions and peatland fire vulnerability [49]. The upper part of the peat dome, which still has forest/natural land cover, is designated as a peat conservation and protection area and can only be used for research and development activities and environmental services. Meanwhile, the area at the top of the peat dome that is no longer forested will become a priority area for peatland rehabilitation [50]. The development of peat environmental services is adapted to the social and cultural characteristics of the region [51]. Peat cultivation can be used on a concession or community basis, but attention must still be paid to the principles of peat hydrological sustainability. The existence of a concession is necessary to ensure that there is someone responsible for managing the concession area [52, 53]. Meanwhile, community-based utilization can be developed through cooperation schemes, social forestry, and community partnerships [54]. The combination of regulations for using peat ecosystems will become the basis for controlling and managing peat ecosystems in the long term. Peat functions ecologically and must support regional social and economic improvement. The community needs a source of livelihood by utilizing peatlands. Peat areas for cultivation are optimized on land with a depth of <3 meters [55]. This is because peat with a depth of >3 meters have a marginal level of suitability for agricultural land and plantations, so economically, it does not have good production value. In addition, peat with a depth of >3 meters are needed for the hydrological protection of the peat so that cultivation activities can maintain its hydrological sustainability.

4.3 Suitability of peatlands for agriculture

Based on depth, naturally, the level of suitability of peatlands for agriculture can be grouped into 4, namely: S1 (very suitable), S2 (quite suitable), S3 (marginal), and N (not suitable). Criterion S1 is because the land has relatively light limiting factors (maximum 4 light limiting factors). S2 criteria because the land has 3-4 light barriers and a maximum of 3 medium barriers. S3 criteria because the land unit has 2-3 light obstacles and a maximum of 1 heavy (heavy) obstacle. Meanwhile, criterion N (not appropriate) because it has a weight limit of >1 (severe). Factors inhibiting cultivation on peatlands are (1) Low fertility of the peat surface, (2) Uneven maturity and thickness of the peat, (3) Problems of degradation and subsidence of the peat surface, (4) Low carrying capacity of hard buildings, (5) The presence of a layer of pyrite and sand at the bottom of the peat, (6) High levels of soil and water acidity because they contain organic compounds, and (7) Water content that is difficult to control, causing saturated water in peatlands (floods in the rainy season and drought in the dry season) [56]. Agricultural development on peat land requires higher input costs than mineral land. Technological innovation is needed to increase agricultural productivity and sustainability on peatlands, including land preparation, water management, soil improvement, fertilization, and pest and plant disease control [57]. The nutrients limiting peat soil fertility are the macronutrients P, K, Ca, and Mg and the micronutrients Cu, Zn, and B. Plants' need for drainage varies, from plants that are flood resistant, such as sago and jelutung, to plants that require drainage 50-70 cm deep, such as oil palm and rubber. There is a close relationship between peat thickness and agricultural production. The results of their research show that rice yields are very low when the peat thickness is >80 cm and highest when the peat thickness is < 50 cm [58]. This needs to be an important consideration, considering that the land conditions in the regencies/cities in Riau are mostly peat land.

The Meranti Islands are an archipelagic country dominated by peatlands. 98.95% of the land in Meranti Regency is peat land and islands. The proportion of peatland area based on regression analysis has a significant positive interaction with the community poverty level with a regression coefficient of 89% (Figure 4). This analysis shows that the larger the peatland area in an area, the higher the poverty level in that area. Peat land is very limited in developing agricultural potential, basic infrastructure, and tourism. So, the poverty level in Meranti Regency is very high because the peatland area in Meranti Regency is the largest in Riau Province. With the vastness of peatlands, communities will be very dependent on capital, both social and economic, as well as family resource management to achieve better welfare [59]. Factors that cause people on peatlands to experience economic poverty include infertile (marginal) and fragile (fragile) land, isolation, low social capital, low human resource competency, and vulnerability [60-62]. People's livelihoods in peat areas are farming, animal husbandry, and farming or fishing. Meanwhile, farming on peat land is no more profitable than farming on mineral land.

Some communities with sufficient economic capital prefer to use peatlands that are not as deep as oil palm plantations by changing the physical form of the peat. Physical changes in peatlands have the potential to release carbon stored in the peat [63]. This will certainly be contradictory to the principle of peat ecosystem sustainability. The distribution of plantation expansion has advantages that often shift the value of environmental sustainability. This requires the application of agroecological and agroeconomic principles to overcome the potential trade-off between economic benefits and environmental sustainability [64, 65]. Planting endemic peat plants such as sago combined with the tumpeng sari principle is one of the conventional solutions that can be carried out by communities on peatlands. Sustainable water management systems, such as closed canals or monitoring wells, are applied to maintain soil moisture without draining the land. This reduces the risk of fires and peatland degradation that can hurt the ecosystem while reducing carbon emissions from dry land [66, 67]. But of course, the presence of the government or capital owners is very much needed to improve the welfare of people living on peatlands. This is because improving the standard of living of people in peat areas is highly dependent on social and economic capital [68]. Dumai with a large peatland area can reduce the poverty rate to a very low level of around 3.21% [69]. This is because Dumai City is an industrial area so its people switch to the industrial and service sectors. Dumai City takes advantage of its geographical position as an export and import gateway so that its infrastructure and investment are better. This also has an impact on economic diversification, many MSMEs and services are developing as a result of the main industrial activities. This can of course be applied in Meranti Regency with government support and strong economic and social capital so that the poverty rate can be reduced even lower.

4.4 Oil palm plantations on peatlands

The expansion of oil palm plantations in Riau is motivated by the increasing demand for planting palm oil commodities, which have higher economic value than other agricultural or plantation commodities [70]. Land clearing activities for oil palm plantations began in the 1990s. This started with a transmigration program, an oil palm plantation development project by the community, and the granting of access permits for forest clearing for plantations by both the Company and the community. Palm oil has positively impacted the people of Riau, improving the economy and social values of the community [71]. The results of the analysis of land cover changes prove that there has been an increase in the area of plantations on peatlands. Increased use of peatlands for oil palm plantations shows a negative interaction pattern with poverty levels (Table 5) with a coefficient of determination of 83%. As the proportion of plantation use on peatlands increases, the poverty level decreases. The reduction in poverty levels was triggered by a source of income from oil palm plantations as an economic value for the community. Oil palm plantation activities have increased community household income locally [72, 73]. Factors that significantly influence the income of oil palm farmers are land area, number of oil palm plants, and oil palm prices [74, 75]. People who reject palm oil generally do not feel the direct economic impact of palm oil, for example, forest community groups or community groups that have economic interests outside of palm oil [76].

When turning peatlands into oil palm plantations, agroeconomic and agroecological concepts must be applied to prevent possible trade-offs between financial gains and environmental sustainability. Oil palm farms should be arranged spatially to avoid disturbing the most delicate peat ecosystem areas, such as peat domes [77], which are crucial for fire protection and water retention. Plantations can boost output in existing areas without extending land into new peat areas by using precision agriculture technologies, such as soil sensors, drone applications, and analytical data. This preserves the ecosystem's potential economic worth. Combining oil palm with other peatland-tolerant plants, including sago or medicinal plants, can provide revenue [78].

4.5 Management related to sustainable development goals (SDGs)

Using agroecology and agroeconomic concepts in peat ecosystem management can help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through a sustainable agricultural approach that preserves ecological balance and enhances the economic well-being of communities [79, 80]. Agroecology concentrates on farming techniques that preserve environmental sustainability, whereas agroeconomics aims to boost agricultural yields and farmer incomes through sustainable economic practices [81, 82]. The application of agroecology and agroeconomic principles aids in resolving peat ecosystem management concerns by highlighting eco-friendly practices and providing long-term financial benefits to nearby populations. To assist accomplish the SDGs, peat ecosystem management can make use of both of these concepts in the following ways:

4.5.1 SDGs 1 and 2: End hunger and poverty

Agroecology allows for local food production in peatland farming without requiring significant land modification. The agroeconomic approach boosts income and production by diversifying food crops that are appropriate for peatland conditions. One program that can be put into place is the development of a local food system based on agroecology and agroeconomics that promotes the cultivation of food crops like sago, bananas, and cassava. This project aims to give communities food and financial stability so they can safeguard the environment and develop economically.

4.5.2 SDG 6: Sanitation and clean water

The agroecology concept places a strong emphasis on efficient water management in peatlands to preserve water quality and lower the risk of land fires. Agroecology makes sure that farming doesn't interfere with peatlands' natural water cycle. Program example: one sustainable way to manage water in peatlands is to use canals and reservoirs to regulate water levels. Employing irrigation techniques that replicate natural processes, such shallow and meandering canals, to control water flow and preserve soil moisture [83]. This prevents water degradation and fires, which jopardize the ecosystem's water quality, and keeps the soil moist.

4.5.3 SDG 8: Economic growth and decent work

The agro-economy, which includes the manufacture of derivative commodities from non-timber forest products, swamp fish farming, and crafts derived from local flora, can provide alternative, non-destructive revenue sources through peatland ecosystem management activities. By generating quality jobs, this strengthens the local economy. Programs like swamp catfish farming and purun weaving are examples of agro-based local economic development projects in peat areas. These programs boost local incomes and impart skills by creating high-value items [84].

4.5.4 SDG 13: Addressing climate change

Agroecology in peatland ecosystems includes no-burn farming practices and planting species that are appropriate for peatland features. This can lower carbon emissions from peatlands, which are frequently harmed by burning. One example of a program is the growth of agroecology-based paludiculture farming using crops including sago, purun, and gelam (melaleuca). This technique lowers the risk of fire, preserves peat soil moisture, and aids in carbon sequestration [85]. By utilizing precision agriculture technologies, such as soil sensors, drone applications, and analytical data, agricultural and plantation expansion can preserve ecosystems and potential economic value by optimizing yields in current areas without extending land into new peat areas.

4.5.5 SDG 15: Terrestrial ecosystems

Peatland management employs agroecology to preserve biodiversity and stop peatlands from being turned into plantations. Agroeconomics, on the other hand, promotes economic sustainability by producing useful goods without contributing to environmental damage. Programs like the application of agroforestry methods to preserve biodiversity based on agroecology are examples. Through this program, local people are encouraged to plant fruit trees on ecologically supportive peatlands, such as durian and water apples.

4.5.6 SDG 17: Cooperation to reach the objectives

Agroecological and agro-economic management of peatland ecosystems requires cross-sector cooperation, including partnerships between governments, international organizations, research institutes, the commercial sector, and communities [86]. This is essential for sustainable projects in terms of technology, knowledge, and funding. The multi-sector cooperative effort on peatland management is an example of a program. Governments provide incentives, academic institutions finance research, and the private sector makes investments in eco-friendly supply chains for peatland products used in agriculture, plantations, or tourism under this initiative.

The research supported by the environmental studies center at the Universitas Riau, and the Ecological Research Institute (ECORINS). The author also would like to thank the anonymous reviewers who agreed to review this journal publication.