Shahad Muneer Abbas*
| Mustafa Abduljalil Ebraheem
© 2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
OPEN ACCESS
The rapid urbanization that cities around the world are suffering from is due to the poor implementation of their urban plans. This research aims to explore the challenges facing Baghdad as a result of rapid urbanization and to identify the importance of integrating the urban project within the tactical plans of the master plan for its integration towards implementation. It also highlights the failure to implement the programs and projects of the master plan promptly and the lack of a fixed mechanism for detailed sectoral plans, as the project implementation process is carried out in an unorganized manner according to the mechanisms and requirements of the real estate market forces. The study dealt with the urban reality of an Iraqi city (Baghdad), using a case study approach, data collection from sector departments and Baghdad Municipality, qualitative assessments through interviews with local officials and stakeholders, and field survey, method tools for collecting data through reviewing literary books related to the concept of master plans, urban projects, and tactical plans, in addition to compiling summaries of some literary references close to the research. Seven areas were selected and compared to the 2000 master plan with reality land uses. Hypothesis testing was applied to the 2030 master plan for Baghdad and how the urban project can be integrated and included within this plan, guided by the French experience. The research found that there is a clear defect in the organizational plan of the city of Baghdad, whose law dates back to the seventies, without any modernization in its components and stages to be compatible with the reality that the cities are witnessing. The study suggests the importance of including the urban project with all its positive characteristics in urban development to achieve a sustainable city. By analyzing the Baghdad 2030 master plan for the projects approved within it and explaining how it is implemented and how urban projects can be integrated into it, citing the French Local Urban Plan (PLU), with a focus on the historical heritage aspect of it, especially the old Rusafa Center area, and explaining how to include the urban project within the master plan. The recommendations included the importance of establishing a transitional urban planning and management system strategy that prioritizes local values by integrating the components and stages of the urban project within the implementation of the general plan.
master plan, urban project, tactical, implementing master plan, sustainable development, urbanization, French experience, Baghdad
Baghdad is one of the world's oldest ancient cities, having served as the hub of several ancient civilizations and continuing to be an important regional hub. However, because of unchecked and rapid urbanization, it is confronted with several difficulties. These difficulties include growth that occurs suddenly and illegally, encroaching on master plans, and poor infrastructure, all of which cause serious environmental, social, and economic issues. A unique perspective on how these processes influence a city with a rich legacy and tremendous urban complexity can be gained from the case study of Baghdad, as cities worldwide battle to handle the issues of fast urbanization [1, 2].
One of the oldest cities in the world and the capital of Iraq, Baghdad, is facing significant issues due to unchecked urban growth and fast urbanization. Among these difficulties, the most notable ones are [3-6]:
It is now more important than ever to create a comprehensive and integrated plan that addresses the city of Baghdad's future sustainability while also taking into account the city's growing population and social, environmental, and economic concerns.
The most important aspect of the 21st century is opening new horizons in human settlements, the remarkable concentration of people in major global cities, and increased urbanization. According to United Nations projections, 75% of the Earth's population will reside in urban areas by 2050 [7]. However, with urbanization, the growth of cities has accelerated social and economic development and created opportunities for scientific and technological progress and social, cultural, and economic growth. Sustainable city development requires an integrated approach that reduces unfavorable situations and helps achieve desirable situations [8-10]. Urban projects can now be easily described as planned endeavors to enhance well-being and/or provide services to urban residents [11].
On the other hand, a city master plan is a plan that specifically aims to organize the current and future growth or redevelopment of the entire city or a specific area of it. These plans are often comprehensive and are created through a multi-stage, multi-input process. Creating municipal master plans is a very complex procedure and requires a great deal of knowledge and data [12, 13]. On the other hand, implementing master plan projects requires a large amount of funding and many lengthy administrative or legal permissions. Local government managers or city legislators typically decide to approve master plan projects. Conducting urban studies and creating and implementing urban development plans are reasonable, implementable tools and solutions for many countries to overcome the challenges and changes cities bring and enhance their biological (social, economic) capabilities and physical and environmental conditions [14].
According to the relevant laws in Iraq, these plans are the most important tools for the physical organization of cities to take various procedures and issue various building permits. However, the success of these plans was always in question. This is because these plans faced a delay in the implementation process, especially in Baghdad, which led to the implementation of a few projects of the masterplan 1973 for the target year 2000 [4], which was more than 40 years old until they approved the Master Plan 2030. Urban development is a complex process that needs to be carefully planned and implemented to ensure sustainable growth and raise residents' standard of living. Cohesive growth requires integrating the urban project/s into the master plan of the existing and new city.
1.1 Research problem
The research problem lies in the failure to implement the plan's programs and projects in a timely manner and the lack of a fixed mechanism for detailed sectoral plans, the project implementation process is carried out in an unorganized manner according to the mechanisms and requirements of real estate market forces.
1.2 Research question and objectives
This research aims to explore the challenges facing Baghdad as a result of rapid urbanization, with a focus on encroachments on the 2000 master plan by comparing the land uses of selected areas of Baghdad from both sides, Karkh and Rusafa, with the reality. Through this exploration, it is important to integrate the urban project within the tactical plans of the master plan for its integration towards implementation. The research seeks to:
By fulfilling these goals, the study hopes to further knowledge of the urban problems facing emerging cities like Baghdad and how to solve them to accomplish sustainable urban growth through tactical urban projects within the Baghdad Master Plan.
The profound economic, technological, and political transformations that gained great importance in the 1970s have made local authorities suffer from external pressures on the municipality. Today, despite the laws governing their implementation, specified by the city statute, it has failed to implement its projects satisfactorily. This idea has been the subject of recent research, from including sustainable development to evaluating its function and, finally, the master plan. When it comes to dealing with the master plan and how to create projects and programs within the implementation framework, every researcher has a different perspective to offer. These studies are summarized in the following review.
In 2009, Wadwekar and Kobayashi [15] addressed and considered the amount of paradigm shift required for the master plan as an urban planning tool to recognize processes beyond the scope of traditional techniques and the political form of urban design. This article examines fragmented urbanization, focusing on Tokyo as a patchwork city with many complexes. Through his focus on "flexibility rather than order, openness rather than closure, and process rather than form," he emphasizes the importance of arriving at a new description of the new urbanism. In contrast, Bobylev provided a critical analysis of the latest research on the use of underground urban space (UUS) in city master plans, along with recommendations on how to mainstream sustainability and UUS concerns into master plans [16].
In a study in 2015, Nallathiga [17] focused on the development field, highlighting the definition of master plans, their components, and how to develop criticism directed at the plans. He also discussed the approaches taken to implement the plan, fraught with the risks of legal and financial difficulties related to land purchases. Plans should include project and strategic aspects. Greater focus must be placed on implementing the plan, especially on proactive proposals, incentive-based policies, adoption of complementary technologies, and use of land-based tools. Peter and Yang [18] examined how master plans can promote sustainable urban growth and explored currently accessible planning documents in Dar es Salaam (the largest city in Tanzania) in 2019. The results suggest that master plans should be more than just a way to reduce urban sprawl. Sustainable urban growth can be greatly supported through master plans developed and envisioned as a comprehensive approach that integrates all aspects of urban development.
In 2020, Hamza and Ali [19] focused on how the community can participate in creating the plan and ensuring its success. As a result, the community needs to be able to make decisions and have a voice in creating master plans for their communities. While Majeed and Abaas [4] evaluated Baghdad's comprehensive urban development plans in 2023. Key options for dealing with urban green spaces are reviewed, many of the previous and current masterplans focus on enhancing the city's environmental and ecological health. While Yashoaa et al. [20] try to find communication opportunities between cities based on their urban rejuvenation policies and ideologies. This research uses chronology and spatial comparison approaches to compare Baghdad with Barcelona. He concludes that interaction between cities is a dialogue of ideas, allowing us to learn from others' experiences and strategies. As Abdullah and Rasheed [13], relied on using the dimensions and mechanisms of urban democracy as a planning and development policy in order to build a comprehensive cognitive framework about the policy of urban democracy in developing the city's master plan and the spatial interconnection of its spaces. Similarly, Croese et al. [14] offer an alternative analytical perspective on the function of master planning in African urban contexts, focusing instead on the role of local planning actors in the demand for and creation of master plans, as well as the forces that shape the creation and implementation of plans.
2.1 Innovative aspects of study
After reviewing the local literature, we note that it is directed towards evaluation, comparison and criticism of the urban result and the problems that result from the lack of clarity and implementation of the master plan projects. The contribution of this study can be achieved by integrating international experience, especially French experience, in how to integrate the urban project as tactical plans to ensure that the Master Plan programs are put towards implementation on time. This study aims to shed light on the consequences of not implementing the Master Plan’s proposals and programmes, the inadequacy of institutional measures for cities and urban development that cannot be remedied, and the accompanying change in land uses and the deterioration of the urban fabric, the built environment, services, infrastructure, etc.
2.2 Theoretical and practical importance
The theoretical importance of this study lies in its contribution to understanding the shortcomings in Iraqi institutional measures and municipalities in implementing Master Plan strategies and programs by shedding light on the capital, Baghdad, and analyzing seven regions, including Karkh and Rusafa. Learn about the urban project concept and how to present it with an innovative solution by including it within the Master Plan.
In terms of practical importance, the study provides applicable recommendations to decision-makers and policymakers by including the urban project legally in the Master Plan to put it towards implementation, as in the French experience for improving the urban environment and sustainable development.
To achieve the research goal, the methodology consisted of two aspects: the theoretical framework and the practical framework.
The research methodology in this study is qualitative, using a case study approach, that is, method tools for collecting data through reviewing literary books related to the concept of master plans, urban projects, and tactical plans, in addition to compiling summaries of some literary references close to the research. Moreover, review the relevant departments, municipal employees, scientific research and books to collect data on the main plans for the city of Baghdad from both sides (Karkh and Rusafa) and find out what was implemented from the master plan in 1973 for the target year 2000, due to insufficient data and approved research on the implemented and unimplemented projects within the master plan. The researcher resorted to finding a way to determine this by selecting seven areas in Baghdad from its two sides (Al-Rusafa and Al-Karkh), three areas from the Al-Karkh side (Al-Amriya area - Al-Harithiya area - part of Al-Dora area), four areas on the Rusafa side (Old Rusafa - Al-Kiryat area - Abkar Al-Sabaa area - New Baghdad), conducting a comprehensive field survey of these and drawing a map of their current uses and comparing them with what has been proposed in the master plan for the year 2000. In addition to analyzing the master plan for Baghdad 2030 for the projects approved within it and showing how to implement it and how urban projects can be integrated into it, citing the French Local Urban Plan (PLU), with a focus on the historical heritage aspect of it, especially the old Rusafa centre area, and explaining How to include the urban project within the master plan.
4.1 Urban project
The word "urban project" or other related terms such as "urban action" denotes a unitary intervention at a certain level of density and homogeneity to redevelop or transform an area. It consists of a more operational than modular approach to city building, often proposed as an alternative to traditional urbanization, who's modular, zoning-based nature has historically characterized urban planning and land management [21].
In general, the urban project is not defined by dry plans; Rather, it is documented in economic, social, and cultural terms within the competition of possibilities that can be separated into general perspectives (social, economic, and cultural), aesthetic choices (organization of the urban network, public spaces, urban appearance, well-built and high-quality structures) since it includes a wide range of technical skills. (setting, construction, and environment), the concept of the urban project also enshrines artistic heterogeneity. The sole purpose of this technical pluralism is to provide comprehensive legitimacy (i.e., a legal description of all these technologies) in the form of approaches and methods. Then, the urban project develops into a comprehensive, integrated idea described as immediate, objective, and political actions [22].
Ariella defines it as a strategy that considers the city and draws it. It is an urban architectural expression for designing the city that addresses social, economic, urban and regional concerns. It is an urban architectural expression for shaping the city that works on social, economic, urban and regional challenges [8], Nuno defines the urban project as a concept of variable scope, that is, with a variable and flexible definition, depending on the values and dimensions that can be applied to it starting from the development of the program and by the strategy [23]. The urban project is not an urban design plan or an architectural or engineering project. Rather, it is an intermediary step between the plan and the architectural project, where the form and content of the city block are determined through an integrated process for the purpose of transforming it [24].
The researcher defines the urban project as an intervention approach in the urban, regional, or spatial field with different dimensions, multiple levels, and a series of distinct, complex, and interconnected tasks with one goal. This must be completed on schedule, within budget, and by regulatory and policy guidelines. Thus, the urban project approach is comprehensive, inter-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, inter-community, systematic, coordinated, negotiated, and contractual. The process of conceptualizing it is open, flexible, and iterative. Urban project has levels and types, see Figure 1.
Figure 1. Urban project types and standers
Source: Author depending on references [22, 25]
4.2 The emergence of the urban project in urban policies
The use of the project idea emerged in the discourses and practices of urban policy actors in the 1970s and 1980s; urban policy participants began to employ the project idea in their practices and discourses as this concept came in three different areas of urban policy: regulatory planning, operational planning, and urban planning [26, 27]. City planners and architects developed the project idea in the 1970s as an alternative to the plan concept and functional city planning practices and processes in operational and organizational city planning. At first, it was somewhat hazy. It allows for the condemnation of attacks on the ancient city, ignoring their effects, the undemocratic and bureaucratic nature of planned city planning processes, and the demand for a return to the mastery of urban development of the nineteenth century [23]. Gradually, the concept of the urban project was strengthened by taking advantage of ideas that were sometimes put forward by some European cities to modernize city planning procedures, to the extent that it served as an inspiration for Solidarity's review of city planning laws. In France, the Urban Renewal Law was introduced in 2000. City planning was reconsidered concerning the urban project as a purely political endeavor, an open and long process involving various players, organizations, interests, professional expertise, and urban dynamics [28].
4.3 Master plan
Master planning aims to enhance the urban environment, as the effectiveness of urban settlements is mostly determined by the level of planning, development, and management. The degree of efficiency of human settlements is mostly determined by planning inputs. The master plan provides guidelines for the city's physical development and directs people on where to locate their investments within the city. Viewed as a process rather than a final declaration [13, 17, 29], the master plan, in short, is a blueprint for the physical, social, and economic growth of the city as well as improving the overall quality of life [17]. The master plan was defined as the comprehensive guidelines governing the natural development of the city. As a result, the comprehensive plan, which defines the geographical distributions of the city's use, growth, and long-term development, is reflected in the master plan map. The lands used within the city reveal the type and extent of this activity. It was stated in Paragraph (4) of the Master Plan Law of Baghdad for the year 1972 that Master plan is considered binding in terms of the material and moral elements it contains, as in official and semi-official departments, institutions, and departments [30].
Deficiencies in the master plans:
4.4 Tactical plan
Tactical planning is a dynamic process that creates focused, short-term plans to support an organization's or person's overall goals. Tactical planning becomes an ongoing ally in achieving business goals and objectives by converting high-level strategy into concrete steps [32, 33]. Its flexibility guarantees that it will respond to the changing demands of the business. Specifically, tactical strategic planning is excellent at converting ambitious long-term goals into doable short-term objectives, enabling companies to reach their objectives [34-36].
4.5 The importance of including urban projects in master plans of cities as a tactical plan
5.1 Determine the study area
Baghdad in Iraq: Baghdad is considered one of the largest cities by default due to its rapid growth and expansion. Due to the wide-ranging political, social, and economic transformations, the inherent characteristics of the city, and the necessity of accommodating the growing population through housing them and creating a suitable urban environment, the city has witnessed one of the fastest growth rates ever [44].
Baghdad was established in AD 762 as the Abbasid Caliphate's capital and the area's first planned metropolitan area, under the Abbasid Caliph Abu Jafar Al Mansur's reign. The city was built on arable land on the west bank of the Tigris, south of the modern-day Al-Kadhimiya region, and bordered by several cities and farming villages. Baghdad, also known as the Round City, was a pioneer in the fields of politics, science, the economy, and culture during this time. After the Round City vanished in the Middle Ages (the fifth and sixteenth centuries), a new urban center sprung up on the eastern bank of the Tigris. Known as Rusafa, this new center seems to have been a sizable neighborhood established by Caliph al-Mahdi, who in the eighth century gave the order to build the Rusafa Palace and Mosque. Karkh and Rusafa were two of the new urban cores that emerged in Baghdad during the Renaissance, which lasted from the sixteenth to the seventeenth century. Around the shrine of Imam Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man in the Adhamiya area, one of these new urban cores developed. The Kadhimiya district's Imam Musa al-Kadhim shrine served as the focal point of the second new urban center (Figure 2) [20, 45].
Figure 2. The map displays Baghdad's primary planning elements as well as its historical morphological stages [45]
5.2 Select the seven regions
The following crucial elements determine which districts of the Karkh and Rusafa regions are chosen for the Baghdad urbanization study:
The choice of these locations makes it possible to conduct a thorough analysis of Baghdad's urbanization process and how it affects many facets of urban life, which can aid in the creation of suitable planning guidelines for the future of the city.
Figure 3. Study area
Source: Author depending on Google maps (online, 14/2/2024)
When the areas were selected, the researcher began collecting data and maps from reviewing official departments, municipalities, the Baghdad Municipality, and previous studies. Three areas were selected from the Al-Karkh side (Al-Amriya area - Al-Harithiya area - part of Al-Dora area), four areas on the Rusafa side (Old Rusafa - Al-Kiryat area - Abkar Al-Sabaa area - New Baghdad), see Figure 3; taking into account the different periods for the establishment and start of each area.
The researcher first searched official government sources and data and interviewed employees in the municipality about the proposed implementations of the 2000 Master Plan, in addition to a careful review of previous studies. The researcher did not find any source or official statement about the projects implemented in the 2000 Master Plan, so he resorted to comparing the land uses of the selected areas of the city of Baghdad. Then he began collecting the master plans for the area. He obtained maps from the Baghdad Municipality and the municipalities affiliated with each area on what is stipulated in the master plan for the year 2000. The researcher noticed that they differed from reality, which made him resort to conducting a field survey of the areas and drawing land use plans.
He redrew the plans stipulated in the 2000 Master Plan to unify the plans with reality for easy comparison. The researcher conducted a field survey through observation and interviewing people in the selected areas of interest on both sides of Baghdad (Karkh and Rusafa), and took photographs of many sides and main streets over five months from November 2023 to May 2024.
5.3 The approved masterplan for the city of Baghdad
Establishing the master plan of Baghdad went through several stages, but the last two approved plans are the comprehensive plan of Baghdad 1973 for the target year 2000 (Figure 4) and the comprehensive development plan of Baghdad 2006 for the target year 2030 (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Master plan of Baghdad 2000 [46]
A comprehensive field survey of the selected areas of Baghdad on both sides (Al-Karkh, Al-Rusafa), which was conducted over a period of seventh consecutive months from November 2023 to May 2024, and a comparison of usage as shown in Table 1.
As shown in the comparison between the land use for each region from (1-6) in Table 1, we find a clear and large difference between what is approved in the master plan and the actual land use. The modern city is becoming more dynamic in a rapidly globalizing world [1, 47], how the master plan will respond to this new dynamism is the issue, in addition to being unstable. The city is no longer a cohesive unit: Henri Lefebvre also criticized urbanization, saying that a homogeneous space has nothing homogeneous [13, 15]. This is because the master plan adopted of Baghdad is more than 40 years, which resulted in so many problems in implementation, in addition to the wars in Iraq that led to multiple urban transformations that disrupted the urban fabric and encouraged illegal and spontaneous growth. In addition, there are deficiencies in institutional measures for cities and urban development that cannot be remedied. As a result, Baghdad today faces a variety of problems, including the deterioration of the urban fabric and built environment, services, infrastructure, transportation, and the standard of public and social buildings, a large housing deficit, weak legislation, inefficiency, and Economic growth [44, 48].
Table 1. Land uses: The seven selected areas of the city of Baghdad
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|
Area |
Real Life Land Uses (a.) |
Land Uses Approved in the 1973 Masterplan (b.) |
|
1. |
Harithiya sector |
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|
In the early 1950s, some of the property in Al-Harithiya was sold to contractors; the remaining land was then sold to attorneys and economists in the 1960s. |
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|
2. |
Amriya sector |
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|
Al-Amiriya, also known as Ameriya Baghdad, is a neighbourhood in the Iraqi capital that is situated in Al-Karkh on Baghdad's western edge. Located between the airport road and the Abu Ghraib Road, which connects Baghdad to the western part of Iraq and the city of Abu Ghraib, Al-Amiriya is a relatively new neighbourhood, with building having started in the late 1970s. |
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|
3. |
Al-Jumhuriya neighborhood, Al-Jamiya neighborhood, and part of the second police district in the Doura area |
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Al-Dawra is a large area south of Baghdad. It overlooks the western bank of the Tigris River. It is surrounded by an area of dense palm groves. It was established during the 1960s-1980s. |
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|
4. |
Old Rusafa Center |
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|
Al-Rusafa, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, is considered Baghdad's most important historical centre because of its important place in the collective memory of contemporary Iraq 1135 AD. |
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|
5. |
Kiryat and Sabaa Abkar area |
||
|
Al-Krayat is a residential neighborhood in Al-Rusafa, northern Baghdad, bordered to the north and east by the Sabaa Abkar neighborhood and to the south and west by the Tigris River. The community is bounded on three sides by the river. Al-Krayat is situated west of Al-Rabi' neighborhood, which is a neighborhood that includes a portion of Sabaa Abkar as well as Al-Krayat and the Dahalik area. This is an agricultural area where residential development is continuing until the green spaces and orchards are nearly gone. An ancient neighborhood in northern Baghdad is called Sabaa Abkar. Nestled between lush orchards, the community was solely occupied by the landowners. Once upon a time, they would plow it, gather its fruits, and then sell them. Then, in the 1940s, Sabaa Abkar was developed as a contemporary residential neighborhood and had two streets at that time. The inhabitants of Sabaa Abkar urged the government to annex them to the capital because they were outside the Baghdad Secretariat's boundaries. That was approved by the government on July 28, 1953. The 1957 census estimated that there were 1,900 people living in the Sabaa Abkar area. Because of all the orchards, it felt more like a suburb at the time rather than a rural area. |
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|
6. |
New Baghdad area |
||
|
When people moved from the old neighbourhoods inside the wall to the new neighbourhoods, Baghdad grew because of the economic and social advancements that made it possible for them to purchase huge plots of land and construct opulent mansions that matched their social and economic standing. In 1945, a firm that specialized in constructing huge homes—the New Baghdad firm—was founded in collaboration with the Egyptian and Iraqi capital, leading to the appearance of new districts. Engineer Jassim Mohammed Abdul Ghani oversaw the business along with a group of knowledgeable stockholders on the board of directors. Due to their financial support of the initiative to meet financial objectives, Jews had a significant say in how it was run. |
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Source: a. Author (2024), b. Author depends on [46]
Figure 5. Land use plan of Baghdad 2030 [49]
It was proposed to create ten secondary centers with varying densities and uses within the final comprehensive development plan for Baghdad 2030. Other changes included the removal of the green belt that was planned in Masterplan Baghdad 2000, the establishment of a new green belt, and the horizontal expansion of the surrounding areas, with the master plan of Baghdad and in all directions (Figure 5) [49].
Together with comprehensive urban design concepts created to complement planning regulations, a vision for the urban identity of Baghdad in 2030 has been produced. The proposal is for it to be a culturally diverse heritage city. Besides promoting economic growth and raising the standard of living of its citizens, it is also envisioned as a competitive, modern city that attracts investments and investors—highlighting and distinguishing it locally because of its distinct character. The urban fabric of Baghdad is diverse, as it includes several unique natural sites, in addition to many green spaces and water bodies [49].
Some areas of a special nature, such as the Tigris River, require the preparation of “action plans for priority areas for implementation” in the form of “urban design” plans; Historic urban fabric areas require conservation plans.
Table 2. Action plans for priority areas
|
Urban Design Scheme |
Preserving Urban Heritage |
|
|
Source: [41, 42]
Each priority area plan referred to in Table 2 can be an urban project to facilitate the implementation process within the framework agreed upon in the plan through tactical plans. The focus will be researching an urban heritage preservation project, citing the French experience through the local urban plan PLU for Heritage and Experience.
5.4 Urban project: new issues, new methods and new strategies
Since major cities stopped growing and expanding at the natural pace that upended their historic structure, the urban movement has focused on promoting "perpetual" growth. The first step in creating a sustainable city amid urban transformations and globalization is to integrate sustainability into urban planning; this will improve the quality of life in urban areas, ensure social cohesion and respect for the environment, and create an organized and accessible space. We need to include a new approach to intervention in urban land, and this situation has forced researchers to reconsider new intervention tools for tomorrow's cities. The urban project is an adaptable tool that integrates social, economic, and environmental dimensions into its approach [50-52]. The term "urban project" refers to different scales: the city, the neighborhood, the urban area, and even the building itself. As mentioned previously, the term "urban project" can sometimes be used interchangeably with "urban policy," "macro-architectural project," or "urban strategy." Regionalism" although it may partly align with some of these meanings (such as being an important moment in urban policy, containing large or small architectural projects, or serving as an instrument of urban strategy), is also defined by its integrated managerial aspect that embodies strategic approach, sustainability, efficiency, relevance and, most importantly, participatory democracy. Through its dual dimensions of "urban" and "project," this concept explains a set of scales and timings of intervention in the city from the neighborhood development level to the cluster level. An urban project can uniquely respond to a specific local context with its objectives and fit within an appropriate time frame. For an urban project, time is an active factor, not a negative factor. Its passage does not stop when approaching the initial achievements. Its passage does not stop when approaching the initial achievements; it can even help generate new ideas—citing the French experience to strengthen the researcher's argument for integrating the urban project into the master plan within the framework of the tactical plan's mechanism [11, 22, 53, 54].
According to the Leipzig Charter on European Sustainable Cities [55], integrated urban development is a process that involves the coordination of important areas of urban policy at the spatial, sectoral, and temporal levels. According to Ferri et al., there are three different stages in which integrated policy solutions are shaped. The objectives are as follows:
The ultimate goal of the urban project should be to promote sustainability, sustainable development, and quality of life in cities through integrated solutions that consider multiple aspects of urban planning. For all of the above, it is possible to achieve integration into the master plans for new and existing cities by including the urban project within its tactical plans, which helps to implement the master plan satisfactorily and in record time.
5.5 French experience
In France, the Land Use Plan (POS), which originated from the Orientation Focière Law of 1967, was replaced by the Urban Local Plan (PLU) on 13 December 2000 under the Solidarity and Urban Renewal Law (SRU). The dual purposes of the PLU were to allow the planning document to express a local urban project and to harmonize policies for sectors operating at broader scales [56]. Local Urban Plan, or Plan Local d'Urbanisme, is what PLU means in French. It is a legal document that lists the development and planning rules for a particular municipality or region. The Land Administration Unit sets regulations regarding zoning, building permits, land use, and other areas of urban planning. It seeks to preserve the region's identity heritage while promoting sustainable and orderly growth [57]. The local government creates a PLU after consulting stakeholders, such as residents, businesses, and environmental advocacy groups. Before being officially adopted, it is subject to public consultation and approval procedures. Decisions on land use, construction projects, and infrastructure development are guided by the PLU, which acts as a blueprint for urban growth. Considering elements such as housing, public facilities, transportation, and environmental protection, it helps control the growth and expansion of cities and towns [56]. PLU is essential for forming the physical environment and sustainable growth of French towns and cities. In order to balance the requirements of society, the protection of natural resources, and cultural heritage, it provides a framework for responsible urban design and management. In France, any project involving urban development must legally integrate the urban project into the Local Urban Plan (PLU). It ensures that new construction adheres to the principles of sustainable development and is in harmony with the existing urban fabric [57]. The ZAC "Zone d'aménagement concert" formula allows this operation to be carried out in multiple places or on the territory of one or more municipalities (originally ZAC intercommunal). ZAC is also a tool designed to facilitate the implementation of large-scale urban projects, as large-scale urban projects are the key to transforming large parts of downtown areas into a sophisticated, functionally complex building fabric consisting of residential, commercial, leisure, and other uses, given the changing requirements. Public engagement and feedback from various stakeholders, such as local businesses, residents, and community organizations, are usually included in this process. Because urban centers allow the coordination of public services, infrastructure, and facilities within a defined area, they facilitate a more organized and efficient approach to urban development. It also provides a structure to ensure that development initiatives are aligned with the broader goals and objectives of the neighborhood [58]. Urban planning today strongly emphasizes the need for close cooperation between public and private capital. The machinery of urban planning in the twenty-first century forces public operators to deal with the reality of free market commercialization [8].
The concept of heritage is included in all PLU and planning units, including the PADD document, OAP, organizational section, introduction report, and appendices. We used the PLU(i) analytical grid of the “heritage PLU” project to illustrate the importance of heritage in discourse and organization. The “PLU patrimonial” project, funded by the National Research Agency from 2015 to 2019, brings together researchers working in public law and city studies (geography and sociology). Even if the LCAP of 7 July 2016 did not ultimately lead to the concept of (Heritage PLU), we note that the idea of the PLU was focused on identifying the site and its characteristics. Since then, local heritage has made significant progress; the SRU has contributed to this since 2000. We are drawing on multiple disciplines, seeking to allocate specific options for the characterization and management of heritage projects covered by the term (heritage PLU) through the Examination of specific types to link architectural design to the choice of specific or more general planning tools [56]. Finally, developing a city planning project and formulating simplified PLU(i) laws, including substantive rules, may result. To develop the legal system and bring it into force, even if we realize the need for this type of flexibility in the urban and regional context, it is necessary to establish basic development standards. In addition to other lines, the history of PLU now raises the direct question of how to balance the requirements of standard or non-standard tools for the protection of regional history and regulatory urban planning, which some consider outdated and inflexible for the urban project [57].
The PADD project allows for depicting how the heritage topic is included in the urban project by placing it within the various axes and orientations, as well as the associated places and goals (figure 6). This topic was understood based on PADD's analysis of PLU(i) representing medium-sized or large cities. Although they are named after very close trends or axes (quality of life, mobility, attractions), the role of heritage within these trends varies depending on the city. Rarely is heritage analysis so pervasive throughout the document as in Lyon. Beyond this quantitative feature, the general heritage map reveals a classification effort that separates or falls between environment and heritage and identifies specific forms of heritage within the region [56].
A
B
C
Figure 6. a. Integrating heritage into a given sector. b. Depicts individual and linear heritage components in a zoning plan. c. The hierarchy of heritage in a zoning plan [56]
5.6 Historical heritage aspect of Baghdad
In the masterplan of 2030, the cultural and heritage aspects took on wide importance (Figure 7). Urban fabrics of historical and architectural importance were identified, and proposed conservation areas were identified for the Ottoman and Abbasid fabric, represented by Al-Rusafa, Al-Karkh, Al-Adhamiya and Al-Kadhimiya, despite them being in a deteriorated and scattered state. These basic urban fabrics are characterized by the "Shanasheel House," a typical Baghdadi house with an internal courtyard or "host." The buildings are constructed around small, winding streets and lanes. It also identified the areas of the colonial period in Al-Saadoun Al-Mansour, Al-Waziriya Al-Adhamiya, Al-Aywadiyah, Al-Karrada, Abu Nawas, other sites during the colonial and post-colonial period. There is historical and architectural importance to these beautiful cities. It currently plays an important role in the urban fabric and urban identity [50]. Cultural heritage is defined in urban development programs to protect historical structures and the traditional urban fabric. It strengthens societal identities as well as the diversity of cultures. In addition, they emphasize their creative urban products over time to meet human requirements in today's cities, as seen by various global agreements to document heritage worldwide. Heritage can serve as a bridge across multiple generations. As a result, it serves as a source of social engagement and love for belonging [59].
A
B
Figure 7. Historical urban fabrics [49, 50]
Preserving the urban heritage included in the plan is considered an urban heritage project to organize its implementation mechanism; it is possible to benefit from the flexibility and characteristics of the urban project, from the French experience in uncovering heritage, conducting surveys, and involving various actors. After adopting the operational urban project for heritage (major urban projects - which are between several municipalities, as was explained in the urban project standards), we can divide the priority projects first into each of the regions mentioned in the picture above, which are clarified in the form of tactical plans and through programs and charts. We will discuss the old Rusafa Center in detail to clarify the mechanism of the urban heritage project.
5.6.1 Old Rusafa Center
Al-Rusafa, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, is considered Baghdad's most important historical centre because of its important place in the collective memory of contemporary Iraq. The largest historical urban fabric from the Abbasid era is still standing due to its previous role as the capital of the late Abbasid Caliphate. Due to its antiquity, which dates back to approximately 1135 AD, it consists of several houses and buildings of historical, architectural and cultural importance that constitute an essential element in the city centre, which is the centre of political and commercial activity. There is an opportunity to preserve the region's historical and cultural aspects while enhancing its social and economic reality, see Figure 8 [60].
Figure 8. Heritage areas in old Rusafa Center
Source: Author depends on references [49, 50]
The main problems and constraints that threaten the preservation of urban terraces, thus categories of heritage assets, such as archaeological sites, buildings, open spaces, buildings, monuments and statues, are identified. The regulations relating to terraces and the necessity of preserving them stipulate the obligation to conduct comprehensive surveys before including them on the official lists. This process requires reviewing both organizational and administrative frameworks. Several changes are being considered to expand the scope of work to include all types of land and create a framework for civil society participation in the conservation process, which is essential to preserve the historical and urban fabric. According to the French heritage experience mentioned, the local urban plan (PLU) was a tool for expanding and discovering various heritage and historical heritage sites. They classified the sites and heritage mentioned in the French Urban Heritage Project (PLU Heritage). They involve actors (political electors, specialized experts, residents and participating citizens) in surveys and inventorying of heritage in a coordinated manner and through several mechanisms. Thus, the forms and results of the inventory will differ according to the different participating actors. After that, urban projects can be prepared within an operational project for Rusafa, with priority for each project, according to the database from field surveys of the various actors participating. We conducted a detailed field survey in localities 108 - 110 - 113 - 115 and demonstrated the urban condition of the buildings and fabric by reviewing some pictures of the most important buildings (Table 3).
Table 3. Field survey pictures of the four neighborhoods, buildings listed as heritage
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A |
|
B |
|
C |
Source: Author (2024).
In the comparison between the uses of the land made by the researcher for the seven selected areas of Karkh and Rusafa (Al-Amriya, Al-Harithiya, part of the Dour, Old Rusafa center, Al-Krayyat, Al-Sabaa Abkar, and New Baghdad), we notice a large number of changes between the approved master plan and the actual use of the situation. The modern city is more dynamic than at any other time. Because of globalization, modern technology, and the unforeseen external factors that countries may experience, the master plan for cities must respond to this new dynamic. The Master Plan recently adopted by Baghdad was more than 40 years old, resulting in many implementation problems, leading to multiple urban transformations that disrupted the urban fabric and encouraged illegal and spontaneous growth. Moreover, there are irremediable shortcomings in institutional measures related to cities and urban development.
For this reason, Baghdad is currently dealing with several issues, such as the deterioration of the built environment and urban fabric, slums, services, infrastructure, transportation, the standard of public social buildings, a significant housing shortage, and Ineffective laws and economic growth. The field survey conducted in the seven areas of Baghdad shows that there is an urgent need to deal seriously with the implementation of the programs and proposals of the 2030 master plan, in addition to the detailed survey of the old Rusafa area and what it contains of severe neglect of the development of the area and heritage buildings in particular, despite most of them being documented by the municipality as heritage. We need serious plans to deal with the city's development, especially about heritage on a wider scale within the city’s master plan through a large urban project. The urban development plans in France were investigated and how they included the urban project within them due to changes in the city’s management system. It highlights the importance of relying on policymakers, city planners and officials: to integrate the urban project effectively into the strategic structural plans and tactical plans of the material, the basis of which is based on stakeholder participation, cooperation between the public and private sectors, clarity of the financing mechanism, and its flexibility in the face of changes that occur in the place at a given time.
This study focused on the growing significance of tactical urban initiatives in the Baghdad master plan. Since they offer practical, fast-fix solutions to enhance urban living, these initiatives are regarded as an efficient and short-term way to address the development and urban issues that contemporary cities face.
The significance of these initiatives was emphasized in terms of their potential to improve public infrastructure and create more dynamic and sustainable public spaces using targeted, small-scale interventions in the urban environment. The study also demonstrated the adaptability and creativity of these initiatives, which enable them to be built in response to the requirements of the local community and based on interactions between residents and the city.
The research reached several points through the analysis, which are:
Based on an analysis of the seven regions within Baghdad and a comparison of land uses in addition to an analysis of the 2030 plan and an explanation of how the urban project is included in the master plan as well as the French PLU plan (the French experience), it can be concluded that the use of tactical urban projects in development can significantly improve the quality of life and enhance social and economic integration in the city. Therefore, it is recommended that more of these initiatives be included in future development plans, with the involvement of the local community in the decision-making process to ensure the sustainability and long-term success of these projects.
The study highlights the necessity of collaboration between the federal government, local government agencies, and civil society organizations to produce measurable and expeditious outcomes that enhance Baghdad's urban environment and create the foundation for more extensive and sophisticated planning.
7.1 Recommendations
7.2 Future research directions
Examining these patterns may offer a more comprehensive framework for comprehending the value and efficacy of tactical initiatives in accomplishing sustainable and well-balanced urban development in Baghdad.
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