Human Development in Vietnam: A Systematic Review

Researching perspectives on humans, the current situation, and solutions for human development has attracted a large number of outstanding international and domestic researchers.

First of all, there are works that study the perspective of humans from the perspective of dialectical materialism. The concept of human development has been a subject of early inquiry in both Eastern and Western philosophical traditions. Hegel's philosophy also promotes "a sense of freedom" but about the perception of necessity. That is, in essence, the freedom of each individual inevitably limits the freedom of others and society as a whole. Each philosophy and each religion offers its ways and plans to resolve this contradiction. In the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels famously articulated the idea that the unrestricted advancement of each individual is essential for the progress of society as a whole. They envisioned a future where the dissolution of capitalist structures would give rise to a new social order communist society where the free development of every individual would be paramount. Throughout history, the pursuit of freedom has been a pervasive theme in human spiritual and philosophical discourse. Regardless of social status, people across cultures have aspired to freedom as a fundamental ideal. Religious teachings often emphasize the importance of respecting the freedoms of others while advocating for personal restraint. The exploration of human development, as reflected in Marx and Engels' writings and echoed in various philosophical traditions, underscores the intrinsic connection between individual progress and societal advancement, with freedom serving as a central pillar of this pursuit [1].

In the 80s of the twentieth century, the issue of human and human development was studied extensively, the first major achievement was the human development report of UNDP. In the first Global Human Development Report (referred to as the Report), released in 1990, the United Nations redefined the concept of "human development," affirming and clarifying the role of humans as the central subjects in sustainable development. The 1990 Report emphasized forming human capabilities based on improving health and skills, as well as how these skills are utilized to build lives, and expand access to, and choices of essential resources for human development [2]. Subsequently, the 2015 Report highlighted enhancing human capacities and creating conditions for comprehensive human development, placing human development in the political, social, and environmental spheres of life [3]. The 2019 Report continued to emphasize human capabilities, including both basic and advanced capabilities [4]. The 2020 Report focused on the relationship between humans and nature, aiming to initiate a global and national-level dialogue on redesigning the development path, reflecting respect for the symbiotic relationship between humans and the Earth [5].

Along with the Human Development Reports, the Human Development Index (HDI), toolkit continues to be adjusted and supplemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to clarify the social aspects of human development, aiming to support countries in their efforts to improve the quality of life for their citizens. By 2020, in addition to the indicators measuring health, education, and living standards that have been conducted over the past 30 years, the United Nations added measurements for CO₂ emissions and per capita material consumption of each country [6].

The work “Marxist-Leninist Philosophy on People and the Building of Vietnamese People in the Period of Industrialization and Modernization” criticized the limitations and mistakes of some pre-Marxist conceptions of man, and affirmed that the birth of Marxism was a revolutionary turning point in the conception of man. The views of Marx, Engels, and Lenin about human nature, about man - the creative subject of history and human liberation are deeply analyzed and confirmed by the author, Marxist-Leninist doctrine has “considering man as the starting point and human liberation as the highest goal that humanity needs to achieve". "Human liberation is to bring people out of the closedness of caste, status, and position of man in society. It is the recognition of the universal nature of man and the recognition of the human nature of the species person throughout the actual human existence; make labor and peace, humanity, humanity, and equality… the intrinsic attributes of human beings are firmly realized in each person and the whole social community” [7]. Second, research projects on the current situation and solutions for human development in Vietnam. In Vietnam, human issues and human development, although the research interest has only been in recent years. But so far, there have been many research works published in the journals of philosophy, human studies, sociology, and psychology, and many reference books, monographs, and textbooks are published all over the world. Throughout the country, several scientific works at ministerial and state levels, master's theses, and doctoral theses have been successfully defended. We also had a national report on human development, for the first time in 2001 and subsequent years. It can be said that researchers have approached this problem from many different angles, and many different scientific disciplines. At the same time, they also explain this issue in a very diverse and profound way on both theoretical and practical levels. Therefore, an overview of research works related to the thesis topic is essential, first of all, it helps us to have an overview of scientific works with content related to the topic. More importantly, it will give us the theoretical basis, methodology, arguments, and arguments for the study of the topic. At the same time, it also helps us to reference the content of our topic with those scientific works, to avoid duplication, promote the achieved results, and avoid the limitations that those topics have. Moreover, it allows us to focus on new points that need to be studied in the topic. The study titled “About the New Man” collected many articles by a group of authors, presented ideas about a man in the history of Eastern and Western philosophy, and the work confirmed the human problem is the problem. The focus is studied throughout the history of the development of human thought. The more society develops, the more the correct awareness of the position, role, and life of the person himself is of primary concern; “The general direction of building a new socialist human being is a comprehensive and balanced development of a human being, taking care of all aspects of human life. But the most urgent issue today is to build a new working style: Labor for the collective, disciplined, technical, highly productive, and practical labor. Knowing that working for the collective becomes everyone's obligation, each person's highest honor and pride is a profound revolution in labor attitude and discipline. Such a revolution in the consciousness and psychology of each and the whole society can only be the result of a combination of educational, economic, administrative, and legal measures” [8].

The work “On Comprehensive Human Development in the Period of Industrialization and Modernization” clarifies the theoretical basis for the comprehensive human development strategy in Vietnam in Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi Minh's thought. Besides, foreign experience in human development is also an important basis for developing Vietnamese people. The authors also gave a model of Vietnamese human personality, Vietnamese people are “a person with ideals of national independence and socialism, with a pure morality, preserving and promoting values cultural values of the nation, capable of absorbing the cultural quintessence of mankind; have a strong will, and great ambition to bring into play the potential of the Vietnamese nation and people, have a sense of community and promote individual positivity, have creative and experimental thinking, have good practical skills, high skills, industrial style, organization and discipline, high sense of responsibility, compassion, respect and cooperation with others, good health, capable of continuous self-improvement, dynamism, and adaptability, legal spirit and civic consciousness, awareness of environmental protection, love of beauty” [9]. It is a model of the close association between virtue and talent in people.

The article “Inequality and Economic Growth: The Role of Initial Income Journal of Economic Growth” conducted a study where they analyzed the relationship between income inequality and GDP per capita growth across countries, taking into account initial income levels. Their findings indicate that the impact of inequality on economic growth varies depending on a country's initial income status. Specifically, in Low-Income Countries, higher levels of income inequality are associated with accelerated transitional growth. Conversely, in High-Income Countries, inequality exerts a significant negative influence on transitional growth. For a country with a median GDP per capita of approximately $10,000 in 2015, the instrumental variables regressions suggest that a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient could lead to a reduction in GDP per capita growth of over 1 percentage point over five years, with a long-term effect resulting in a decrease of approximately 5% in GDP per capita [10]; “Inequality and economic growth: the role of initial income” advocate for policymakers to adopt alternative measures of economic well-being that prioritize broader indicators beyond traditional GDP metrics. They argue that such measures can incentivize transitions towards economies that prioritize overall well-being and desirability objectives, thereby offering a more comprehensive approach to economic development and societal progress [11].

The study “Developing High-Quality Human Resources to Fulfill the Aspirations of Building a Prosperous and Happy Country: Problems and Solutions” underscores the significance of social security systems in reflecting a nation's progress both domestically and globally. They emphasize that governments worldwide are actively endeavoring to establish and implement fundamental social security frameworks as part of their policy agendas. Such efforts, they argue, contribute to fostering progressive societies aligned with principles of truth, goodness, beauty, and sustainable development. Vietnam, amid its process of international integration, has made notable strides in constructing a comprehensive social security apparatus. This includes policies addressing job creation, income guarantees, social insurance for various contingencies, as well as provisions for social assistance and essential services such as healthcare and education. These achievements, recognized and commended by the United Nations, mark significant progress towards Vietnam's millennium development goals [12]. Moreover, “Development of the Social Security in Vietnam: Reality and Solutions” asserts that the implementation of social security measures is integral to achieving comprehensive human development. They advocate for a holistic transformation in education and training, citing universities as pivotal components of national innovation systems. By providing essential functions such as human resource development, fostering scientific and technological advancements, knowledge transfer, and cultivating entrepreneurial skills, higher education institutions play a crucial role in nurturing high-quality human capital. The authors contend that investing in the cultivation of such human resources is imperative for harnessing national potential and fulfilling collective aspirations, particularly in light of the ongoing digital transformation shaping global dynamics [13]; Research “Strategies for poverty reduction to meet the requirements of sustainable development” has evaluated the achievements in poverty reduction in Vietnam and suggested scientific and timely solutions to implement poverty reduction in Vietnam [14].

In summary, the above studies have clarified the perspective and status of human development in countries around the world in general, and Vietnam in particular. The studies have mentioned the theory of human development and the development policies of the people of the countries. However, there has not been any research on the overview of human development in Vietnam. Based on inheriting previous studies, the study clarifies the current situation and proposes solutions to human development in Vietnam today.

4.1 The results of human development in Vietnam

Vietnam's economy has undergone remarkable development strides during its process of international integration, achieving significant milestones along the way. With a consistently high economic growth rate, the country has seen its GDP expand substantially, surpassing previous levels. Between 1986 and 2017, Vietnam's GDP grew at an average annual rate of 6.6%, a trend that continued with an average growth rate of 6% per year between 2016 and 2020. Despite facing challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Vietnam maintained its status as one of the high-growth countries in the region and globally. In comparison with other nations that have experienced rapid economic growth over the past three and a half decades, Vietnam's average GDP growth rate stands out. Ranking second only to China with a growth rate of 9.4%, Vietnam surpasses countries like Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, the United States, Japan, and Germany, with respective growth rates of 5.9%, 5.2%, 2.6%, 1.7%, and 1.8% [19]. This substantial economic expansion is reflected in Vietnam's increased economic scale on the global stage. From ranking 90th in the world in terms of economic size in 1990, Vietnam's GDP surged to $171.2 billion, elevating its global rank to 57th place by 2013. Furthermore, Vietnam transitioned from being categorized among the world's poorest nations to being classified as a low-middle-income country in 2008. These achievements underscore Vietnam's emergence as a significant player in the global economy, marked by sustained growth and increasing economic prominence on the world stage.

The restructuring of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Vietnam has undergone a significant intensification, focusing on equitization, divestment, and bolstering operational efficiency. This initiative has resulted in a notable reduction in the number of SOEs, particularly within key industries and sectors. Concurrently, the non-state economic sector has witnessed remarkable growth, playing a pivotal role in mobilizing social resources, reshaping the economic landscape, fostering employment opportunities, and elevating workers' incomes. Notable transformations have transpired in Vietnam's economic structure, notably within the agricultural sector, which has seen its contribution to GDP decline from 18.9% in 2010 to 14.8% in 2020. Efforts have been directed towards nurturing large-scale, modern, high-value-added, and sustainable agricultural practices, alongside fostering production linkages along the value chain and cultivating renowned brands for key agricultural products. The proliferation of state-of-the-art agricultural processing facilities, coupled with the rapid expansion of cooperative enterprises, underscores the sector's modernization and efficiency enhancement. Moreover, there has been a discernible surge in the proportion of processing industries, manufacturing, and the adoption of high technology across diverse sectors. Notably, the share of processed exports in the total export value of goods has surged from 65% in 2011 to 85% in 2020. Additionally, several industries and service sectors, such as information technology, communication, e-commerce, finance, healthcare, aviation, and tourism, have undergone substantial modernization and technological advancement, driving significant progress and achievements. Indeed, the tourism industry has emerged as a key driver of economic growth, with international visitor arrivals soaring from 5 million in 2010 to 18 million in 2019. This underscores Vietnam's remarkable economic development, openness, and high integration into the global economy. These achievements have made a substantial contribution to the accumulation of material resources, facilitating investments in human development initiatives. As a result, Vietnam's HDI has demonstrated continuous improvement in recent years, propelling the country from the middle group to the high group since 2019. From 1990 to 2021, Vietnam's HDI value surged from 0.482 to 0.703, marking a remarkable increase of 45.9% (refer to Figure 1). This trend reflects the nation's steadfast commitment to fostering comprehensive development and enhancing the well-being of its populace.

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Figure 1. Vietnam HDI from 1990 to 2021

The UNDP Human Development Report for 2021-2022 highlights the profound impact of multi-factor uncertainty on global human development, resulting in unprecedented insecurity in people's lives. While certain countries are beginning to recover, the report underscores a concerning trend of increasing inequality in human development, particularly affecting regions such as Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic played a significant role in exacerbating these challenges, leading to a global decline in the HDI for two consecutive years, a first in its 32-year history. This setback has pushed human development levels back to those of 2016, erasing much of the progress made towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Over 90% of countries experienced a decrease in their HDI scores in either 2020 or 2021, with over 40% witnessing declines in both years, indicating the widespread and persistent impact of the crisis on people's well-being. However, amidst these global challenges, Vietnam's HDI value in 2020 showed positive growth, increasing from 0.703 in 2019 to 0.774. While Vietnam experienced a slight decrease in its HDI value in 2021, returning to 0.703, this decline reflects the broader global context shaped by the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite this, Vietnam's global ranking improved from 117th out of 189 countries in 2019 to 115th out of 191 countries in 2021. In Southeast Asia, Vietnam ranks sixth in HDI value in 2021, following Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, and surpassing the Philippines [20].

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Figure 2. HDI values of countries in Southeast Asia and India, Japan, Korea, and China in 2021

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Figure 3. HDI value of countries in Southeast Asia and India, Japan, Korea, and China in 2021

The HDI values of Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines are closely aligned, with the three countries sharing similar rankings within the region. Overall, while global challenges persist, Vietnam's continued progress in human development underscores its resilience and capacity to navigate complex socio-economic landscapes, positioning it favorably within the Southeast Asian region and beyond (refer to Figure 2).

Among the countries ranked alongside Vietnam in terms of Human Development Index (HDI), only Indonesia has an HDI index comparable to Vietnam's. The other four countries Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, and Thailand are significantly ahead, each having an HDI of 0.800 or higher. These countries fall into the category of those with very high HDI values (refer to Figure 3).

In Vietnam, the HDI has experienced consistent growth over the years, driven by increases in all three components. Notably, the life expectancy index has contributed significantly to this upward trend. The average life expectancy in Vietnam has seen a steady increase, from 72.2 years in 2005 to 73.6 years in 2021. In Southeast Asia, Vietnam ranks fifth out of eleven countries in terms of life expectancy, surpassing the regional average of 72 years. It also ranks 26th in Asia, with a higher life expectancy than the continent's average of 73 years, and 87th globally, exceeding the world average of 73 years (UNDP data). However, while Vietnam's life expectancy has shown improvement over the years, it still lags behind some of its regional counterparts. In 2021, Singapore boasts the highest life expectancy in Southeast Asia at 82.8 years, followed by Brunei (74.6 years), Thailand (78.8 years), and Malaysia (74.9 years). Nonetheless, Vietnam outpaces countries like Indonesia (67.6 years), the Philippines (69.3 years), Cambodia (69.6 years), East Timor (67.7 years), Laos (68.1 years), and Myanmar (65.7 years) in terms of life expectancy. This data underscores Vietnam's progress in enhancing the health and well-being of its population, as reflected in the increasing life expectancy. Despite trailing behind some regional counterparts, Vietnam's consistent improvement in life expectancy contributes significantly to its overall human development and its position on the global stage. Continued efforts to improve healthcare services, promote healthy lifestyles, and address public health challenges are essential to sustain and further enhance this positive trajectory.

In terms of the value of the per capita income (GNI) component, Vietnam's GNI per capita changed by about 398.1% from 1990 to 2021 [20]. According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2021), in the years 2016 - 2020, Vietnam's GNI per capita is only higher than Myanmar, East Timor, and Cambodia (below even Laos). GNI per capita under the current PPP Singapore is 11.2 times higher than Vietnam; Brunei is 8.2 times; Malaysia 3 times; Thailand 2.3 times; Indonesia 1.5 times; while the Philippines reached 9,778 USD, 1.2 times higher than Vietnam. In 2016, the national income (GNI) per capita by purchasing power parity (PPP) reached 6,211.1 USD, in 2017 reached 6,634 USD, in 2018 reached 7,279.2 USD and in 2019 reached 7,842 USD. In 2020, despite the low economic growth rate due to the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, GNI per capita still reached 8,132 USD [20].

Regarding the health index, from 1990 to 2021, Vietnam's average life expectancy changed by 4.4 years . In 1990, the average life expectancy in Vietnam reached 69.2 years, by 2021 it will reach 73.6 years [20]. The health index contributes the most to the HDI but has grown the slowest in the past decade, due to the high life expectancy of the Vietnamese people. Once the high is reached, it is very difficult for life expectancy to continue to increase as quickly as before. In addition, the health care for the people has many shortcomings such as the average number of hospital beds per ten thousand people is low, many hospitals at the upper level still have the situation of patients having to share beds, beds in the corridor, etc. The health insurance payment policy is still inadequate, and many elderly people do not have health insurance. Regarding the education index, the average number of years of schooling changed by 4.3 years, and the number of years of schooling is expected to change by 5.1 years between 1990-2021. In which, 2019, 2020, and 2021, the average number of years of schooling remains the same, equal to 8.37 years (refer to Table 1).

Table 1. Average years of schooling expected years of schooling in Vietnam from 1990 to 2021

In addition to the HDI, Vietnam also utilizes the Gender Development Index (GDI) and the Inequality-adjusted HDI to gauge gender disparities and inequality in human development. The GDI compares the HDI of women to that of men, providing insights into gender gaps in health, knowledge, and standard of living. In Vietnam, the GDI value of 1.002 indicates a slight advantage for women, with their HDI value slightly surpassing that of men in 2021. Conversely, the HDI considers inequality across all HDI dimensions, reflecting the disparity in human development due to inequality. In Vietnam, this inequality results in a 14.4% loss in human development, translating to an IHDI value of 0.602 in 2021.

Furthermore, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) evaluates gender disparities across three key dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. Reproductive health indicators include maternal mortality and adolescent birth rates, while empowerment factors encompass parliamentary representation and educational attainment. Additionally, the GII considers labor market participation rates for both women and men. Vietnam's GII improved in 2021, with a score of 0.296, positioning it 71st out of 170 countries. These indices provide valuable insights into the status of gender equality and the impact of inequality on human development in Vietnam. While progress has been made, challenges persist, emphasizing the importance of continued efforts to address gender disparities and promote inclusive development.

From analyzing the results of human development in Vietnam in recent times, it can be concluded that:

Vietnam has witnessed a significant increase in its HDI through international integration. The trajectory of Vietnam's HDI reflects remarkable progress, with notable advancements from 1990 to 2009. During this time frame, Vietnam's HDI rose steadily from 0.439 in 1990 to 0.752 in 2009. However, it's important to note a methodological shift in the calculation of the HDI by the UNDP since 2010. This change entails replacing the criterion of adult literacy rate with the average number of years of schooling and the expected number of years of schooling for the Knowledge index and replacing GDP per capita with GNI per capita for the Income index. As a result of this recalibration, the HDI of most countries, including Vietnam, experienced a decrease [21]. Despite this adjustment, Vietnam's HDI has continued to exhibit an upward trend over the years. While the recalibration may have led to a reduction in the HDI values compared to previous calculations, the overall trajectory of human development in Vietnam remains positive. Indeed, the average growth rate of Vietnam's HDI from 1990 to 2021 is impressive at 1.22%, outpacing several neighboring countries in the region. For instance, Thailand recorded an average growth rate of 1.07%, Indonesia 0.95%, the Philippines 0.5%, and Malaysia 0.73% during the same period. This sustained progress underscores Vietnam's commitment to enhancing the well-being and opportunities of its population, reflecting a multifaceted approach to development that encompasses improvements in education income, and other key indicators. As Vietnam continues its journey of integration and development, its focus on human development remains a cornerstone of its growth strategy.

Vietnam's Human Development Index ranking has steadily improved over the years, reflecting the nation's ongoing progress in various areas of human development. In 2010, Vietnam was ranked 128th out of 187 countries globally. By 2014, the country had advanced to the 116th position out of 188 countries, placing it among those with a medium HDI. This positive trend continued, and in 2019, Vietnam reached a significant milestone by securing the 117th position out of 189 countries, indicating its entry into the group of nations with high HDI. By 2021, Vietnam had climbed to 115th place out of 191 countries [22], showcasing its continued progress. This consistent improvement underscores Vietnam’s dedication to enhancing its citizens' well-being and opportunities. It highlights the country's commitment to advancing across various sectors, including education, health, and income, while effectively adapting to global changes. As Vietnam continues its development journey, maintaining and building upon these achievements will be crucial for ensuring sustained progress and prosperity for its people.

The number of regions across Vietnam categorized within the high HDI group has shown a consistent upward trend. According to the 2020 report from the General Statistics Office, all provinces and centrally-run cities exhibited higher HDI levels in 2020 compared to 2016. Over the period from 2016 to 2021, there was an 84% increase in the number of localities nationwide classified as high HDI regions. Although no locality attained Group 1 status, denoting very high HDI, none fell into Group 4, the lowest category according to UNDP criteria. Notably, the number of localities classified in Group 2 increased from 13 in 2016 to 24 in 2020, reflecting a positive trajectory. Another significant outcome is the narrowing gap in HDI disparities between regions. The average difference in HDI between the top 10 scoring localities and the bottom 10 decreased from 26.38% in 2016 to 23.61% in 2020.

Vietnam's social security system has made significant strides over the past three decades, achieving impressive results in ensuring the well-being and stability of its citizens. In 2017, the number of individuals enrolled in Social Insurance stood at 13.82 million, while 81.189 million people were covered by health insurance, and 11.539 million individuals were beneficiaries of unemployment insurance. Fast forward to 2021, and these figures have shown remarkable growth, with 16.5 million people covered by Social Insurance, 88.83 million individuals enrolled in health insurance, and 13.4 million beneficiaries of Unemployment Insurance. Furthermore, in 2021, the coverage rates for these social security programs reflect substantial progress. The Social Insurance coverage rate reached 33.75% of the working-age workforce, ensuring a significant portion of the labor force is protected against various risks. Additionally, the health insurance coverage rate expanded to 91.01% of the population, providing a vast majority of citizens with access to essential healthcare services. Moreover, the Unemployment Insurance coverage rate reached 27.33% of the labor force in the eligible age group, offering a safety net for individuals during periods of job loss or economic instability. These achievements underscore Vietnam's commitment to building a robust and inclusive social security system that safeguards the well-being and livelihoods of its citizens. By expanding coverage and enhancing the accessibility of social security programs, Vietnam is fostering greater social cohesion and resilience, laying the foundation for sustained growth and development. Continued efforts to strengthen and expand social security initiatives will be crucial in ensuring the prosperity and security of all members of society.

Life expectancy in Vietnam is higher than in other countries with the same income and higher than in many countries with higher HDI rankings than Vietnam. In 2021, compared to the same level of per capita income (GNI), the life expectancy of Vietnamese people is higher than that of countries with the same income level. Specifically, the average life expectancy in Vietnam is 73.6 years old, the Philippines is 69.3 years old, and Laos is 68.1 years old. Even though Indonesia has a higher GNI than Vietnam, it only has an average life expectancy of 67.6 years [23] (refer to Table 2).

Table 2. Statistics on average life expectancy in countries with similar GNI and above Vietnam

Compared with many countries with the HDI index and higher income than Vietnam, the average life expectancy in Vietnam is higher. Specifically, in 2021, Vietnam's HDI index ranks 115/191 countries and has an average life expectancy of 73.6 years, then Oman (ranked 54/191, with an average life expectancy of 72.5 years), similar to Georgia (ranked 54/191, with average life expectancy 72.5 years). 55/191, 71.7 years old), Ukraine (61/191, 71.6 years old), Peru (84/191, 72.4 years old), Brazil (87/191, 72.8 years old), Egypt (97 years old), /191, 70.2 years old), Indonesia (114/191, 67.6 years old [24].

Vietnam has made significant progress in advancing gender equality, as evidenced by its Gender Inequality Index of 0.296, placing it at 71 out of 191 countries globally, according to the UNDP's Human Development Report 2021. Compared to other countries in the ASEAN region, Vietnam ranks favorably, trailing only behind Singapore (0.040) and Malaysia (0.228), and surpassing nations such as Thailand (0.333), the Philippines (0.419), Indonesia (0.444), Laos (0.478), and Cambodia (0.461). In terms of political representation, Vietnam has also demonstrated notable strides towards gender parity. For the term 2021-2026, the proportion of female delegates to the People's Council at various levels is commendable, with 29.00% at the provincial level, 29.20% at the district level, and 28.98% at the commune level. Moreover, the number of female National Assembly deputies has shown steady growth over the years, indicative of Vietnam's commitment to promoting women's participation in decision-making processes. From just 10 female deputies in the 1st National Assembly (1946-1960), accounting for 3% of the total, the representation has increased significantly. In the XIV National Assembly (2016-2021), the number of female deputies rose to 133, constituting 26.8% of the assembly. In the current term (2021-2026), the proportion of female deputies has further increased to 30.26%, positioning Vietnam as the 51st globally, 4th in Asia, and first in the Council of Parliamentary Union of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (AIPA) in terms of the proportion of female national representatives. These achievements underscore Vietnam's commitment to gender equality and women's empowerment across various sectors, including politics and governance. As Vietnam continues its efforts to advance gender equality, ensuring equal opportunities and representation for all genders will remain a key priority for the nation's development agenda.

4.2 Limitations in human development in Vietnam

Despite the progress made, human development in Vietnam continues to face several limitations and challenges that must be addressed, including:

The upward trend of HDI slowed down. The average growth rate of Vietnam in the period 1990-2000 is 2.01%, from 2000-2010 is 1.21%, and from 2010-2021 is 0.53% (refer to Table 3).

Although the overall average growth rate from 1990 to 2021 of Vietnam reached 1.22%, higher than Thailand (1.07%), Indonesia (0.95%), Malaysia (0.73) %), Philippines (0.5%) the average growth rate in the nearest period 2010-2021 Vietnam is 0.53%, lower than Thailand at 0.75%, Indonesia is 0.55% and only higher than the Philippines is 0.33%, Malaysia is 0.39% (refer to Table 4).

Vietnam has shown consistent advancement across all aspects of the HDI since the 1990s. However, the pace of this progress has moderated in recent years. This deceleration can be attributed largely to Vietnam's economic growth, resulting in increased wealth. Consequently, the nation's life expectancy and education standards have risen significantly in comparison to income levels.

Table 3. HDI Vietnam growth rate by period

Table 4. HDI growth rate of Southeast Asian countries by period

In terms of rank, the three component indexes of Vietnam's HDI increased slowly. In the period 2016-2020, the life expectancy index only increased by 0.004 points, the lowest increase among the three component indexes. The knowledge index, which increased slowly after 5 years, only increased by 0.022 points. If in 2016, Vietnam's education index was scored at 0.618 points, then by 2020 it will only increase to 0.640 points, because during the past 5 years [24], Vietnam has had no special policies to improve the field of education and training. Education and training in Vietnam continue to face numerous limitations and challenges. In many kindergarten settings, there remains a high student-to-teacher ratio, highlighting the need for more individualized attention. Similarly, high schools grapple with issues such as inconsistent grading standards, overcrowded classrooms, and the quality of teaching staff, particularly in urban areas. At the tertiary level, there is a pressing need to refine the curriculum structure, enhance vocational training opportunities, and bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. Despite efforts to revamp the education system, there persists a disproportionate ratio of educators to skilled workers. Moreover, while strides have been made in educational reforms, there remains a disconnect between academia and the needs of the economy. Science and technology have yet to fully emerge as primary drivers of economic and social progress, highlighting the imperative for further integration of these fields into the education system. Addressing these challenges will require comprehensive reforms aimed at improving educational standards, fostering innovation, and aligning curriculum with the demands of the modern workforce.

The income index, despite having the highest increase in the past 5 years (with an increase of 0.040 points), is too small and There are also many limitations. Although Vietnam has a relatively long period of continuous growth and a relatively high rate of labor productivity growth, because the starting point is too low, Vietnam's GNI per capita in USD is lower than in many countries. The main reason is that Vietnam's investment efficiency and labor productivity are low, and the contribution of productivity factors to the economic growth rate has increased but is still low.

The improvement of Vietnam's HDI ranking is slower than that of some countries in the region. From 1980 to now, Vietnam's HDI has made certain improvements, but the ranking has not changed much (refer to Table 5).

Table 5. Comparison of HDI rankings of Vietnam with Thailand and China over the years

Table 6. HDI VN ranking with some neighboring countries in 2021

Although Vietnam's education system has made notable progress, it still trails behind several regional peers. As of 2021, the average number of years of schooling for Vietnamese individuals aged 15 and older has gradually increased to 8.4 years. However, this figure remains lower compared to neighboring countries. For example, Malaysia's average years of schooling improved from 2.8 years in 1960 to 10.6 years in 2021. The Philippines saw an increase from 4.7 years in 1960 to 9.0 years in 2021, while Singapore’s average rose from 3.7 years in 1960 to 11.9 years in 2021. Korea’s average years of schooling also grew significantly, from 4.3 years in 1960 to 12.5 years in 2021. These comparisons underscore the need for continued efforts to advance Vietnam's education system to enhance its regional competitiveness. Additionally, Vietnam’s average of 8.4 years of schooling in 2021 is below the global average of 8.6 years for the same year.

The HDI value of Vietnam belongs to the last group of countries with high and lower HDI values in the region and the world. Although there has been a continuous increase in recent years and the HDI value is in the high group, Vietnam is still at the bottom of the group, ranking 49 out of 49 countries with highly developed HDI (refer to Table 6).

On the other hand, the HDI value of Vietnam in 2021 will reach 0.703, lower the Southeast Asian average of 0.715 and the global average of 0.732.

4.3 The solutions for human development in Vietnam in the coming time

Based on recent assessments of human development in Vietnam, the study recommends that policymakers focus on the following strategies to enhance human development policies in Vietnam:

First of all, it is necessary to encourage everyone to get rich according to the law, effectively implement the goal of hunger eradication and poverty reduction; create opportunities and conditions for everyone to have equal access to development resources; create the motivation to get rich among the population with their talents and creativity, within the legal and ethical framework allowed. Develop and implement with high results the program of hunger eradication and poverty reduction, prevention of re-starvation and poverty reduction and gradually raising the poverty line as the general living standard increases.

Secondly, innovation and reform of education and training are imperative to Vietnam’s overall development strategy. Education plays a pivotal role not only in enhancing individual capacities and fostering personal growth but also in driving scientific and technological advancements. It serves as a key catalyst for workforce development, productivity enhancement, and societal progress. Hence, there is a pressing need to instigate a paradigm shift in the perception and approach towards education and training in Vietnam. Emphasizing innovation in educational content is essential to cultivate learners' qualities and competencies effectively. Tailoring educational pathways to cater to diverse student needs and potentials is paramount. To this end, Vietnam should prioritize the adoption and implementation of the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education model. By integrating these core disciplines, the STEM approach equips learners with essential skills and knowledge crucial for the modern workforce. Strategic planning in education development is crucial for aligning human resource strategies with market demands. This entails robust forecasting of labor requirements and market trends, along with meticulous planning of educational institutions. Establishing a network of universities, colleges, and vocational schools strategically positioned to meet global standards is essential. These institutions should aim to nurture globally competent citizens capable of contributing to international standards. Fostering a learning society embedded with values of truth, goodness, and beauty is vital for societal advancement. Encouraging constructive criticism and condemning actions contrary to social moral standards are integral components of comprehensive human education. By promoting a culture of lifelong learning and ethical values, Vietnam can cultivate a civilized society that fosters holistic human development and societal progress.

Thirdly, strengthening effective management of labor, employment, and income is very important to improve people's quality of life. Job creation is a fundamental policy, especially for developing countries like Vietnam. Without adequate employment opportunities or jobs offering low productivity and income, individuals cannot secure sustainable livelihoods. Conversely, access to jobs and increased income enables individuals to meet their material and spiritual needs, access quality services, enhance their societal status, and integrate into their communities. Recognizing this imperative, all levels of government and sectors must prioritize social investment, job creation, and the refinement of wage policies. It is crucial to address structural inefficiencies and emphasize the enhancement of human resources quality. Vocational training and job creation initiatives should be seamlessly integrated into socioeconomic planning and localized economic development strategies, aligning with the occupational demands and restructuring goals of each region. Continual refinement of labor protection policies and the promotion of labor export play pivotal roles in job creation efforts. These measures not only generate employment opportunities but also contribute to income growth and skill enhancement for the workforce. By implementing these strategies, Vietnam can effectively address unemployment, elevate living standards, and foster sustainable economic development.

Fourthly, the government needs to focus on sustainable poverty reduction, job creation for people, and improving people's quality of life. The renovation and development of the country always aim at the goal of people having a warm life full, free, and happy. The country's development aspiration places a high priority on the goal of comprehensive human development, putting people at the center of development. Based on this thinking, national policies need to harmonize economic, political, social, and human development; better take care of social welfare, create jobs, eliminate hunger and reduce poverty, improve conditions, and improve people's quality of life. In addition, focus on early and quality completion of goals and programs for sustainable development, for people; create all conditions and support people, especially vulnerable groups, to have equal access to resources and basic social services. Simultaneously, synchronously and effectively implement solutions to sustainable poverty reduction, especially in ethnic minority, remote, and isolated areas [14].

Fifthly, it is necessary to ensure the stability of the political and social environment. The political environment must be democratic, stable, safe, and secure so that people can study, work, produce, and do business with peace of mind. Ensuring the stability of the political-social environment. The political environment must be democratic, stable, safe, and secure so that people can feel secure and make every effort to study, work, produce, and do business. World practice proves that in a politically unstable country, the people are insecure, so they do not promote their full potential in production and business, leading to the economy, culture, education, and training... undeveloped, and even lagging. On the contrary, when the economy, culture, education, and training cannot develop, there are no conditions to promote the human factor. Therefore, political stability, ensuring democracy, safety, and security for the people play a very important role in promoting the human factor. To ensure a stable, democratic, safe, and secure political environment, it is necessary to promptly and strictly handle organizations and individuals that take advantage of issues such as democracy, human rights, ethnicity, and religion... to cause internal disturbances, destabilize socio-political conditions, and harm the people's stable, secure and safe political environment. The economic environment must be favorable for people and businesses to do business. It is necessary to form synchronously all kinds of markets in the direction of civilization, modernity, and integration to promote the positivity and initiative of people in starting a business, and at the same time create favorable conditions for enterprises to develop production business, healthy competition, and bringing benefits to the people and the country. Building a modern, humane, and integrated business culture based on mutual benefits, and promptly and strictly handling organizations and individuals that do illegal business and negatively affect the environment. Production and business in particular, to the economic environment in general. The cultural-educational environment must be healthy, progressive, and rich in humanity, with Vietnamese cultural values and people as the foundation, as an endogenous force in socio-economic development as well as in socio-economic development in international integration. To build a good cultural-educational environment, it is necessary to strengthen the education of patriotism and national pride, raise the sense of preserving the national cultural identity, the sense of respecting the observance of the law, and raise high-quality education - training. At the same time, it is necessary to promptly and effectively prevent degradation in morality and lifestyle, repel social negativity and social evils, and combat formal diseases in education and training.

Sixthly, proactively embracing and fully utilizing all conditions available in the current comprehensive integration process to develop Vietnamese people. Accordingly, actively and positively participating in the international integration process is an essential and objective requirement; it is a strategically important task, both urgent and long-term, for the entire political system and society. Effectively seizing the opportunities brought by integration to promote innovation and high-quality human resources; improving the quality of life and welfare of the people [25]. Efforts should be concentrated on leveraging all achievements to develop the economy, eradicate poverty, increase income, and raise the living standards of the people, thereby creating material conditions for human development. These are opportunities for people to improve their material living conditions, forming a foundation for comprehensive development. However, economic development must be coupled with cultural development to create sustainable growth. Thus, economic development must go hand in hand with cultural development.