Community Participation in Urban Agriculture in the Greater Bandung Area, Indonesia: A Political Ecology Perspective

This research chose a location in the Greater Bandung Area because it is one of the major cities that has intensified the urban agriculture program, with a spread of locations including Bandung City, Bandung Regency, West Bandung Regency, and Cimahi City (Figure 1).

1.jpg

Figure 1. Map of research sampling

2.1 Data collection

Data collection uses mixed methods to describe the results related to the level of community participation based on a political ecology perspective and its influence on realizing the sustainability of urban agriculture. Objects taken for this research are urban agriculture actors who are members of farmer groups in the Greater Bandung Area who manage either subsistence or commercial agriculture and the City Agriculture Office or the local Agricultural Extension Agency (BPP).

Qualitative data collection is done by interviewing informants and divided into four stages, namely literature study, observation, interviews, and documentation in the form of photos and recordings. Ideal informant characteristics have a role and knowledge in the community, being voluntary, communicative, and impartial or neutral [30]. Quantitative data collection was then carried out using questionnaires to respondents. The questions used by researchers in the questionnaire were made to be easily understood by respondents.

The first step to determine respondent is the sample size using the empirical model of the parent study and then continue using power analysis [31]. The sampling design used in this study is a stratification—a random cluster with a significant level of 5% and a power level of 80%, which is then distributed proportionally into farmer groups. The sample size is rounded to ensure each group has a sample unit. Thus, the number of respondents obtained is 280, divided into 140 subsistence farmers and 140 commercial farmers.

2.2 Data analysis

Data analysis for the qualitative method was carried out with several stages: data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. Quantitative data analysis was done with data validation, coding, and tabulation. The t-test or Paired Sample t-test was used to determine the significance level. In its operationalization, urban agriculture is represented as a group of commercial farmers and a group of subsistence farmers. Thus, to confirm this premise, a mean difference test was conducted based on two independent samples. Data analysis follows the following analysis steps:

Statistical hypothesis:

H0: μ1 ≥ μ2, the level of community participation of commercial farmers is not lower than that of subsistence farmers.

H1: μ1 < μ2, the level of community participation is lower than that of subsistence farmers. The test statistics used are:

$t=\frac{\bar{x}_1-\bar{x}_2}{\text { s.e. }\left(\bar{x}_1-\bar{x}_2\right)} \sim t_v$

The level of community participation was then determined by categorizing the level of participation at each stage based on the average score of the related questions, using a Likert scale divided into 5 levels. The terms used are:

1.00-1.50: very low

1.51-2.50: low

2.51-3.50: medium

3.51-4.50: high

4.51-5.00: very high.

Furthermore, in determining whether a rung has been reached, and if the average rung is already in the high or very high category which is score above 3.51, the participation status of a group is seen from the highest rung that has been reached. In this case, it is possible that if a group has reached a certain rung, the level of participation at lower rungs will be lower.

4.1 Characteristics of urban agriculture group members

The characteristics of actors involved as members of urban agriculture groups are one of the benchmarks in understanding community participation, basically in a group allowing interpersonal communication between members. The involvement of various actors and differences in the characteristics of each individual will be routinely encountered so that it is possible to influence matters relating to the group and the managed urban agriculture [32]. Based on the research, it was found that many members of the subsistence farmer group are also members of the posyandu cadre and members of the family welfare empowerment (PKK), where this group is dominated by women, because the aims is to make it easier to coordinate and support stunting prevention programs through the consumption of urban agricultural products that are more guaranteed in quality.

A commercialized agricultural system basically leads to a greater market orientation in agricultural production [33]. As in this study, it was found that the number of men in commercial agriculture is related to the source of livelihood and the role of men as heads of families, so participating in urban agriculture aims to fulfill household needs and increase the income of the perpetrators through the sale of urban agricultural products. In this study, it was then found that most members of subsistence and commercial farmer groups are aged 15-64 years and are included in the productive age range where people can still carry out activities effectively and efficiently daily [34]. In the level of education, differences between subsistence and commercial farmers were found due to various factors, including those who do not have the economic ability to pay for education, so they choose to work directly. Another factor is the family's hereditary in agriculture, so they decide to continue this rather than continue their education. However, the results found in this research show that the number of farmers aged under 35 years or the younger generation is small. The decreasing interest in agriculture in the eyes of the younger generation is due to the assumption that being a farmer does not promise to increase income and is not a prestigious job and changes in the perspective of the younger generation due to historical trends when agricultural management is seen as a job that does not require high cognitive skills [35-37].

The difference found in the length of time farming, and the type of main job is because one of the motivations of people in subsistence agriculture is to find additional activities to increase productivity and start urban agriculture activities after the farmer group formation program. In contrast to subsistence agriculture, commercial agriculture actors were found to have been involved in the world of agriculture since a long time ago, and even farmers were found who had been hereditary because they made urban agriculture a source of livelihood to fulfill their daily needs.

This study found that most of the land utilized by subsistence agriculture actors is public facility land because the location of subsistence farms is in densely populated areas, and other infrastructure buildings with yards tend to be narrow. The conversion of land use for non-agricultural aspects in urban areas is inseparable from the urbanization process, which causes the city population to increase, accompanied by increased land requirements for housing and other infrastructure [38]. In contrast to subsistence agriculture, commercial agriculture mainly utilizes private land because commercial agriculture aims to meet the fulfillment of food supply and market demand, which requires more extensive land.

4.2 Community participation in urban agriculture

Community participation in general in this study shows how the basic involvement of the actors, which includes mutual recognition, respect, and knowledge, so that the results that are above average show that the majority of farmer group members are found to know each other well, respect each other, and have sufficient knowledge. The existence of a knowing relationship that researchers found was shown by the closeness of group members who were not only related to urban agriculture but also outside urban agriculture activities. Group members often gathered to eat together or travel together. The closeness is supported by the people who join one group living in adjacent areas, so they already know each other.

One form of community participation in urban agriculture activities is the involvement of the community in the decision-making process, implementation, receiving benefits, and evaluation [39]. At this general level of participation, researchers found that the involvement of group members in all these aspects made them feel valued because their opinions were considered important. The closeness established since the beginning is also one of the aspects that makes group members more free to express their opinions and be valued by other members.

However, from the perspective of political ecology, it is possible to find a link between power differences in groups and resource management and a tendency to support the most powerful party [40, 41]. In this study, this researcher found that the influence of each actor refers to their active participation and contribution in terms of knowledge and experience.

4.3 Degrees of participation based on Arnstein's ladder of participation

4.3.1 Degree of nonparticipation

In this study, community participation at the manipulation level shows the intensity with which group members are invited to engage in urban agriculture activities. Thus, based on the results obtained in the research at the manipulation level, it shows that the value of both types of agriculture is above average. This means that farmer group members are often invited to be involved in urban agriculture activities. Meanwhile, the therapy level shows the understanding received by group members regarding the goals and benefits of urban agriculture activities, so based on the results obtained at the therapy level, which are above average, it shows that at this level, both subsistence and commercial group members have gained an understanding of the goals and benefits of good urban agriculture activities from group managers.

However, the results showed that subsistence agriculture has significant results with commercial agriculture at the therapy level. This is supported by the fact that many subsistence agriculture farmer group members initially did not have any understanding of urban agriculture before joining the farmer group. Researchers found in subsistence agriculture that there are still people who become mere objects, and all initiations still come from the program organizers. Looking from the political ecology perspective, the discovery of the community as an object shows that community participation in urban agriculture activities is inseparable from the influence of stakeholders who invest in it and utilize the community with certain intentions [15, 17, 42, 43]. Thus, the discovery of this in the field shows that there are still people who take advantage of the urban agriculture program for other purposes, such as groups that are formed without the full benefits given to their members. This is certainly influenced by farmer group members who do not understand the purpose and benefits of their involvement in urban agriculture activities and are still dependent on the program organizers, so they are still easy to influence and not fully able to take steps independently.

4.3.2 Degree of tokenism

In this study, community participation at the level of informing shows the level of understanding of the rights and obligations of group members, along with the freedom to determine activities that can be carried out. The level of consultation shows the intensity of group members being given the opportunity to express their opinions, while the level of placation shows the intensity of acceptance of the opinions expressed. Thus, the provision of informing and consultation results that are above average in both types of agriculture indicate that each group member in both subsistence and commercial agriculture has understood their rights and obligations in the group, given the freedom to choose the activities they want to do in urban agriculture activities, and allowed to express and give opinions. Meanwhile, based on the results obtained on placation, it shows that commercial agriculture is still at a moderate stage while subsistence agriculture has a higher value, which means that the intensity of receiving opinions in the form of criticism and suggestions from commercial farmers is lower than that of subsistence farmers.

The overall results show that subsistence agriculture has a higher degree of tokenism participation than commercial agriculture. This is influenced by subsistence agriculture, which started its involvement in urban agriculture activities dominated by the existence of urban agriculture programs from the government so that good relationships with program organizers make it easier for subsistence agriculture actors to convey and seek criticism and suggestions they have and negotiate with program organizers. The results obtained do not necessarily indicate that commercial farmers do not have full access to express opinions within the group and to program organizers, it is just that commercial farmers who tend to manage their own land make these agricultural actors found to make many decisions themselves in the management of urban agricultural land, in contrast to subsistence agriculture which manages shared land so that everything must be discussed.

The differences found in these two farmer groups are a concern because they show the inequality of their relationships with external parties. The phenomenon of inequality, when viewed based on the idea of political ecology, is basically the existence of unequal power relations. The power and control actors possess can be seen in how they can take steps and influence other parties to achieve their goals [44]. In this study, the close social relationship that subsistence farmers have with the program organizers clearly provides ease in expressing opinions and influencing the ease of achieving the desired goals compared to commercial farmers. According to Arnstein [18], in reality, there is no guarantee that groups will achieve equality of power and access. Therefore, it is common to find differences in the ease with which the two types of farms have access express their opinions. However, if we look further, this is actually one of the gaps in the urban agriculture program.

4.3.3 Degree of citizen power

In this study, community participation at the partnership level shows group members' intensity in planning and decision-making. Then, the level of delegated power and citizen control shows the level of role and authority held in managing urban agricultural land. Thus, based on the results at the partnership level, which show that subsistence agriculture has an above-average score while commercial agriculture is at a moderate stage, in contrast the results at the level of delegated power and citizen control show the opposite. This is because commercial farmer members are not all active in the group. After all, they are already busy taking care of their respective lands, so when something has been discussed and a quick decision is needed, it can be decided by the group manager. However, commercial farmers have full control over land management because everything is decided by themselves, unlike subsistence farmers, who still have to do discussions.

At the partnership level, negotiations between the internal and external actors in the group begin. Better communication and relationships between farmers and program organizer made it easier for subsistence farmers to negotiate, especially with external parties, than commercial farmers. The phenomenon of inequality and its relation to negotiation in political ecology refers to Nygren [45], who states that negotiation is seen as a power-laden process through which people ultimately re-establish unequal relationships alternately governed by broader socio-economic and political conditions [45, 46]. Thus, at the level of appeasement, the researcher sees that there is still inequality in acceptance and negotiation at this level.

Participation must be fair, which means representation of all stakeholders involved and equitable power [47]. The researcher found that the definition of fairness in the decision-making of subsistence and commercial agriculture actors certainly cannot be defined in the same way because of their differences. In this study, it was found that every farmer group, both subsistence and commercial, strives for all to feel that they are given the same rights fairly, for subsistence agriculture, making decisions together is one form of effort to provide justice in the group, while for commercial farmers one form of the justice supplied is by ensuring that jointly owned tools can be utilized by all members with the same portion.

Referring to research related to political ecology, namely that power can be found in everyday life and the actors will influence changes involved [48]. At this level, the power found in commercial agriculture is certainly influenced by the actors involved, namely farmers.

4.3.4 Level of community participation in subsistence and commercial agriculture

Subsistence agriculture was found to be at the partnership level, which falls within the degree of citizen power. Unfortunately, this group is not yet at the highest level of the ladder. Many subsistence agriculture actors were found to have less than 5 years of experience, which is one of the factors that many subsistence agriculture actors still need to develop. In the case of the field, it was found that the lower levels owned by these farms were also influenced by internal factors, where several groups with very few active members were found. The reduction in the number of members involved is certainly a trigger for a reduced rate in the development of farmer group improvement in managing urban agriculture activities because subsistence agriculture manages shared land. Reviewing this phenomenon based on political ecology is a possible thing to happen, where in the management of natural resources, the actors involved in it can compete, one of which is inseparable from the interests of each actor [13, 15].

Of course, members of the subsistence agriculture group are still trying to develop urban agriculture through various strategies and innovations, the first of which is land optimization. The lack of freedom for the community to determine the size of the land they want to manage shows that the power is not completely in the hands of the community. Then, in addition to collaborating with the government, subsistence agriculture also cooperates with other parties, such as making the garden built as a tour for kindergarten students. The aim is to educate children to understand the importance of urban agriculture activities and to sell agricultural products that have been processed to increase the selling price of agricultural products. Furthermore, to improve and attract the involvement of more actors, collaboration is carried out with young people who are members of local communities, such as youth organizations. This is also one of the aspects that shows that bottom-up urban agriculture is starting to be created through innovations carried out on personal awareness by group members.

The farmer groups met saw that urban agriculture activities were related to an increase in agricultural waste; this phenomenon would then become a tragedy where urban agriculture, which was expected to be an alternative to fulfill foodstuffs while preserving the environment with all its positive impacts, had to have the opposite effect if agricultural waste management was not carried out. Therefore, environment-based management is one of the aspects upheld by subsistence farmers. Most subsistence farmers were found to have realized the importance of protecting the environment. In addition to implementing organic urban agriculture, agricultural actors also subsist on managing agricultural waste and innovating by utilizing magot to accelerate waste decomposition. The existence of various strategies that are trying to be applied to maintain the city's sustainability is one of the factors that allow subsistence farmer groups in the Greater Bandung Area to reach a higher level of participation.

Commercial agriculture was found to be at the highest level that is citizen control, which means it belongs to the highest degree of participation. Based on Blaikie and Brookfield [49], political ecology perspective, social, environmental, and economic relations are interconnected [49, 50]. We found that the highest level of participation by commercial farmers in this study is also related to the relationship between these three aspects. Commercial agriculture actors were found to be dominated by people whose main livelihood is farming, so the fulfillment of their family's needs depends on urban agriculture activities, which is a form of natural resource utilization. The pressure to make ends meet and the longer time spent on urban agriculture activities further puts participation in commercial agriculture at the level of citizen control. Based on this, we will see that the persistence of commercial farmers is not only for the sake of pursuing economic fulfillment, but there are social factors where commercial farmers get demands to achieve a decent standard of living and are also supported by the desire to maintain control over the farm that has been built. It was also found that establishing social relations as members of the group facilitates the distribution of assistance from external parties, and the utilization of limited goods can be shared fairly.

In this study, the role of agricultural commercialization is indeed a very important factor to achieve, especially for low-income communities. Furthermore, independent land management by commercial farmers is an aspect that influences the power that each individual has to be equitable in managing the land owned. Unfortunately, this study found that not so many commercial farmers are aware of the importance of preserving the environment. The existence of this can certainly threaten the sustainability of managed urban agriculture. Marx [51] stated that the progress that occurs in agriculture is mere artistic progress in which land robbery also occurs. This is a criticism of the application of political ecology, which only prioritizes the profits and interests of actors without paying attention to ecological aspects, as found in most commercial agriculture in this study.

The pressure to fulfill the needs of the next life makes commercial agricultural actors choose to continue using pesticides rather than face crop failure. So, to maintain the interest of ecological aspects in preserving the environment, what was found to be done was to protect the environment through other means, such as managing agricultural waste into compost. Composting benefits the environment and has economic value because it reduces production costs used to buy fertilizers [52-54]. Basically, the wise use of natural resources and the willingness to preserve the environment are important steps to achieve the sustainability of urban agriculture communities and activities.

The sustainability of urban agriculture also requires assistance from external parties. This is to maximize the development of managed urban agriculture. This study found that help from the urban agriculture program was very useful for them. The assistance provided varied, including seeds, seedlings, and agricultural tools. It's just that there are things that make people dissatisfied, for example, seeds provided that differ from what is needed. Commercial farmers often face obstacles, namely feelings of dissatisfaction with the function of the farmer card, a program widely known and utilized by urban agricultural actors.

The existence of the farmer card should certainly provide satisfaction to its holders because one of the functions of the farmer card is that it can be used to purchase subsidized fertilizer [55, 56]. Unfortunately, in this study, it was found that when asked about the function of the farmer card, many commercial farmers felt that what they got was not as expected due to limitations in use. Some farmers complained that their farmer cards could not be used. Detailed explanations and periodic guidance are needed to maximize the use of the program and avoid disappointment for either party. In response, to achieve sustainable urban agriculture, the program organizers have a major role in the success of the urban agriculture program and the community's survival in urban agriculture activities through regular and consistent supervision and monitoring. However, the challenges are faced not only by farmer group members but also by extension workers who are tasked with monitoring and guidance. The findings in the field show that the number of extension workers is not proportional to the number of farmer groups, which makes the monitoring and guidance that can be given to each group not optimal and evenly distributed.

The limited number of extension workers in the field can affect the effectiveness of counseling and providing information to farmers [57]. This was found in this study where the extension workers who are the link to convey criticism and suggestions from the community do not have an adequate number. Farmer group members in this study are included as grass root actors who have knowledge related to problems that occur in the field and have a lot of information that needs to be accommodated so that the mismatch in the number of extension workers and farmer groups further causes inefficiency in the implementation of urban agriculture programs and becomes a form of inequality in power relations owned. Although there are still many shortcomings faced, the extension workers have been active in holding regular meetings to listen to the opinions of farmer group members, with the aim that group members' opinions can be used in making further policies. The reason is that many agricultural programs have been implemented in the Greater Bandung Area, showing that urban agriculture has been highlighted.

The ability of actors to determine and control other actors or parties is a form of power [44, 58, 59]. This study found that commercial farmers' freedom in choosing the steps to achieve economic benefits is one form of control possessed by commercial farmers. The research conducted showed the cooperation carried out by commercial farmers and the program manager in maintaining profits in the economic aspect, namely with the middlemen. Each farmer is very selective in selling their agricultural products through middlemen so as to avoid getting a disadvantageous price and ensure that the price given is in accordance with the market price. In addition, some commercial farmers work together as food suppliers for hotels to increase their income.