Women Empowerment as a Mediator Between Environmental Conservation and Climate Intervention

Governments today place a high priority on enhancing the lives of their constituents, particularly those who reside in rural areas [1, 2]. Research on the evolution of development perspectives reveals that in the 1950s and 1960s, the focus was solely on advancing economic growth, viewing people merely as tools for increased productivity [3, 4]. Despite economic growth, international development organizations like UNIRSD, 2005 [5] argue that the overall quality of human existence has suffered. Additionally, women's roles have been largely neglected, leading to increased exploitation and humiliation [5, 6]. It was only in the early 1970s that national and international development organizations began addressing women's participation in development initiatives [7]. The 1980s marked a significant shift with the introduction of the sustainable development perspective, altering the understanding of women's role in human development [8, 9]. This critique also gave rise to the "Gender and Development (GAD)" perspective, which scrutinizes women's role in development [9]. Women empowerment serves as a powerful mediator by fostering inclusive decision-making processes and amplifying diverse perspectives. Unlike conventional interventions that often prescribe fixed solutions, empowerment enables women to actively participate in shaping policies and initiatives, ensuring relevance and sustainability. Its distinctiveness lies in its emphasis on systemic change and the cultivation of agency, enabling women to drive their own progress within their communities and beyond [7-9].

The imperative inclusion of women, constituting half of the population, in human development initiatives has gained significance since the 1990s, prompting the initiation of efforts to enhance gender sensitive indicators. Reflecting this commitment, one of the seventeen sustainable development goals is dedicated to "achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls" (United Nations 2015). Despite global efforts towards sustainable development, numerous challenges persist. Over 736 million individuals still endure extreme poverty, defined as living on less than US$1.9 per person per day, with income inequality predominantly prevalent in developing nations [10-13]. Women empowerment encompasses the multifaceted improvement of their economic [14, 15], social [16, 17], and political [18-20] status, addressing the systemic disadvantages faced by women in society [21]. Acknowledged as a pivotal challenge of the 21st century [22-26], true empowerment necessitates the creation of a societal and political climate where women can live free from the pervasive threats of abuse, prejudice, mistreatment, enslavement, and general harassment inherent in historical male dominated systems [21, 27-31]. A prerequisite for achieving sustainable development involves empowering rural women to assume leadership roles in their community's active development and participate in decision-making processes [32, 33].

2.1 Role of women in environment conservation

According to Pillai et al. [34], there is a growing emphasis on policy initiatives and development discussions on empowering women. Alongside this development, there has been a noticeable and consistent change in the perception of women, shifting from being seen as helpless objects and victims to being recognized as powerful agents [35, 36]. The contemporary focus revolves around women empowerment and active participation in development, extending beyond mere ownership of material resources. Challenges related to gender and the environment have arisen as this concept broadens to include ideology and control over non-material resources [36, 37]. Principle 20 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development emphasizes the critical roles that women play in environmental management and sustainable development. Consequently, women's engagement in environmental issues is vital for achieving environment conservation [38]. Women are more closely connected to environmental matters, climate change, and sustainable consumption habits than men, owing to their knowledge, experience, and domestic responsibilities [39-42]. Moreover, research indicates that women exhibit greater conscientiousness than men in areas such as recycling, purchasing eco-friendly items, and opting for organic food. Women, particularly those in disadvantaged rural households, actively contribute to the protection and restoration of the environment as their livelihoods depend on natural resources. However, they also bear the brunt of any environmental degradation [43]. Therefore, empowering Saudi women is equally crucial element in initiatives aimed at environment conservation.

2.2 Environment conservation and climate intervention

In this framework, empowerment is seen as a pathway to environmental preservation. Individual empowerment is characterized by success across various programs. Conversely, on a personal level, empowerment is seen as a strategy for attaining objectives [44-46]. According to this perspective, environment conservation is influenced by behavioral intention, attitude, and knowledge about the environment.

Environmental knowledge (EK) relates to how an individual perceives environmental phenomena [47]. Knowledge about the environment serves to enhance one's understanding of environmental aspects. This education is categorized into thirteen groups, covering environmental management, environmental management techniques, environmental issues, geo-ecology, economics, social and cultural environment, adaptation and evolution, natural resources, culture, politics, family, individual, and mentality [48]. All information related to this subject falls under the umbrella of environmental knowledge. Environmental attitude (EA) as outlined by Pillai [49], refers to an individual's personal beliefs, motivations, and objectives regarding environmental matters and actions. Furthermore, this attitude serves as a benchmark in the environment, shaping how individuals perceive, think about, and observe the world. It also influences how the environment is perceived and how its values impact individuals [50]. The comprehension of the environment is expected to change people's perceptions of it, subsequently influencing policy decisions [51]. Behavioral intention (BI) states that all human actions fall within the scope of behavior, categorized as a broad term [52]. The response of an individual or a group to a specific environmental issue is termed environmental behavior [53, 54]. People can exhibit pro-ecological behavior by fulfilling their moral obligation to take action and consciously working to reduce the adverse impacts caused by humans [55]. Therefore, it is hypothesized as below.

H1: Environmental conversation has a positive relationship with climate intervention.

2.3 Women empowerment (WE) and climate intervention (CI)

This section is dedicated to environment conservation, and discusses the capacity of women to identify their own objectives and take intentional actions. As outlined by Alsop and Heinsohn [44] and Kleine [56], this capacity serves both structural and individual purposes. Positioned as the framework's dependent variable, agency establishes connections between social causes and outcomes. According to the notion of women's agency, women play a pivotal role in driving change, especially in defining significant life choices and exercising control over resources and decisions that significantly impact their lives. UN women [57], advocated this concept for viewing women not merely as recipients of services but as the primary agents in the process of change. Within this framework, women's agency encompasses elements such as knowledge (KNW), mobility (MOB), and decision-making (DM).

DM power in a family is gauged through an amalgamation of various criteria, which signifies the influence exerted by women over choices made within the household. This influence extends to women's decision-making regarding employment, marriage, child-rearing, and other aspects, as well as their capacity to determine the household budget and make purchases without seeking permission. Ghuman [58], has highlighted the importance of women's decision-making authority concerning financial and domestic matters. However, the emphasis is placed on women's involvement in decision-making beyond the domestic sphere, such as their freedom to choose whether to buy jewelry or clothing for themselves or to express their opinions in significant household purchases. Grabe [59], asserts that agency is intertwined with decision-making processes. Mobility as per Bhagowalia et al. [60], and Wiklander [61], the MOB factor signifies the extent of a woman's movement. This pertains to whether women have the freedom to travel to diverse locations, such as markets, healthcare facilities, areas outside their village, neighboring towns, and visiting friends and family, without requiring permission from family members or traveling independently [61]. Formal or informal education, in addition to on-the-job training, can help women improve their knowledge, abilities (including life skills and other competencies), and capacity to use these in pertinent contexts. Eerdewijk et al. [62] defined life skills as the knowledge, attitude, and ability to engage in consistent, constructive behavior that helps people deal with the difficulties of daily life. Therefore, it is hypothesized as below.

H2: Women empowerment has a positive influence on climate intervention

2.4 Women empowerment as a mediator between environment conservation and climate intervention

Women who are empowered take on an active role as change agents and make important contributions to sustainable practices. Women are frequently the principal guardians of natural resources in many countries, which makes their participation essential in environmental activities. Women who are empowered are more likely to participate in environmentally beneficial activities like resource management and sustainable farming. Their improved access to economic and educational possibilities enables individuals to put creative solutions to environmental problems into practice. Additionally, research suggests that women value community well-being, which puts more emphasis on conservation activities. Within the framework of climate intervention, strong women play a crucial role in promoting and carrying out adaptation measures. They play key roles in community-based initiatives that address the impacts of climate change, fostering resilience among vulnerable populations [63]. Therefore, by empowering women, we unlock a powerful force for environment conservation and climate intervention. Their leadership and participation in decision-making processes contribute to a more sustainable and resilient future for both communities and the planet. Therefore, it is hypothesized as below.

H3: Environmental awareness has a positive significant relationship with women empowerment.

Despite its potential, climate intervention cannot replace lower carbon dioxide emissions and adaptation strategies meant to lessen the negative effects of climate change. But as we approach an unprecedented era of climate change, there's a growing interest in intentionally tampering with the climate system to deal with these issues. Climate interventions can be divided into two categories: (1) Carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases removal (CDR) and (2) Solar radiation modification (SRM). Carbon dioxide removal strategies aim to address one of the main contributors to climate change, but further research is needed to assess if these technologies are suitable for broad use. While SRM modification strategies have the potential to rapidly cool the earth's surface, they also pose unknown environmental and other risks, warranting caution in their implementation on a scale that could alter the climate. SMR approach also includes earth’s surface albedo (like brightening urban roofs, planting on the roofs, crop, and other land-use changes [64, 65].

Empowering women is integral to environment conservation. Empowered women actively participate in resource management, community stewardship, and sustainable practices. Relationship harmony is fostered by this link, which benefits women's health and environmental preservation. Empowering women is vital for effective climate intervention. Women, when empowered, play key roles in implementing climate adaptation strategies and community resilience initiatives. Their leadership enhances the capacity to address climate challenges, promoting sustainable practices and contributing to a more resilient and climate conscious society. Since 2017, UN Women, in collaboration with its partners, has been dedicated to advancing the economic empowerment of women and enhancing climate resilience in West and Central Africa. This commitment is manifested through the implementation of its key initiative, the Women Empowerment through Climate-Resilient Agriculture Value Chains' program [63]. The worldwide challenge of climate change necessitates a combination of risk- and effectiveness-tolerant methods. The fundamental strategy for reducing the negative consequences of climate change continues to be strengthening human and natural systems to better withstand it in conjunction with significant cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. The organizations do, however, strongly advise that any actions taken by society to alter the planet's climate be founded on a significantly larger body of scientific knowledge than what is already available. This research should encompass not only climate science but also economic, political, ethical, and other considerations [66]. Therefore, it is hypothesized as below.

H4: Women empowerment mediates the association between environmental conversation and climate intervention.

Based on the illustration from the theoretical aspects of the variables, the study has formulated the following proposed theoretical framework as shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Theoretical framework

4.1 Respondents profile

Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The majority of respondents fall under the age group of 18-25, constituting about 30.9%, with many of them were undergraduates (48.8%), majority of them are unmarried (44.3%). 54.5% of total respondents are non-Saudi and 41.8% are working women.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics (n=246)

Source: Data analysis

4.2 Assessment of measurement model

The examination of the study's measurement and structural model employed Smart PLS-SEM version 4, because of its suitability in analyzing complex relationships within structural equation models, accommodating non-normal data and small sample sizes in fields such as social science [67]. Assumptions include the necessity of reflective measurement models and the requirement of sufficient sample size for robust results.

To address potential Common Method Bias, following the recommendations of Agbonifoh and Ogbeide [68] and Hair et al. [69], the authors initially scrutinized the overall interdependence among study variables to mitigate issues related to interdependence or collinearity inherent in single-source data. This involved subjecting each variable to regression on an established variable, and a VIF value below 3.3 indicated an absence of bias arising from the use of a singular data source, as evidenced in Table 2. The assessment of common method variance involved a comprehensive collinearity test utilizing the PLS-SEM methodology, deemed superior to the Harmon Single Factor method [69]. Furthermore, in accordance with Kock and Lynn, [70], an examination of Web power Multivariate Kurtosis, along with the computation of Univariate and Multivariate skewness and kurtosis, was performed to ascertain data normalcy. The results demonstrated that single-source bias and common method variance were not significant concerns, substantiating the robustness of the data, as outlined in Table 2.

The findings indicate that individual variables exhibited univariate normality, as evidenced by skewness and kurtosis values falling within the range of 1. However, when considering multivariate normality, the application of Kock [71] rule of thumb revealed a multivariate skewness surpassing 3, and the multivariate kurtosis exceeded 20. Mardia's multivariate skewness (β = 66.152, p < 0.01) and Mardia's multivariate kurtosis (β = 124.153, p < 0.01) further affirmed this deviation from normality. Consequently, the data is deemed abnormal, justifying the adoption of the PLS bootstrapping method.

Table 2. Testing for full collinearity

Source: Data analysis

4.3 Validity and reliability

As there were potential bias in the data, study was proceeded with additional investigation to assess the validity and reliability conditions. The factor loadings of individual items for each study variable were consistent with the requirements outlined by Leclercq-Machado et al. [67] ensuring that items exhibited loadings above the acceptable threshold of 0.5. To gauge the reliability of the variables, a composite reliability (CR) value was computed, ranging from 0.820 to 0.922, surpassing the minimum threshold of 0.70 recommended by Leclercq-Machado et al. [67]. Furthermore, the study delved into the convergent validity of the measuring items, defined as the average variance extracted (AVE) value exceeding 0.50, as indicated in Table 3. The AVE values, ranging from 0.774 to 0.884, demonstrated an excellent AVE rating, affirming that each construct accounted for more than fifty percent of the variation among its indicators. This comprehensive examination confirms the study's success in establishing reliability, validity, and convergent validity.

Table 3. Reliabilities of study variables

Source: Data analysis

4.4 Discriminant validity

To ensure the validity and reliability of the study variables, we conducted an investigation into the discriminant validity of the assessment items. Utilizing the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) criterion, the values for discriminant validity of the research variables were found to be reasonable, as depicted in Table 4 below. Recognizing criticisms of the Cain et al. [72] reliability criterion, the MTMT matrix approach was employed to assess discriminant validity using the HTMT ratio of correlations [73]. As outlined in the research, concerns about discriminant validity arise when the HTMT value exceeds 0.85 or 0.90 [73, 74]. In line with this criterion, all values in Table 2 met the HTMT 0.90 threshold, and no variables exhibited an HTMT value of 1, indicating the presence of discriminant validity in the constructs Kock [71]. Consequently, both vertically and horizontally, the row and column values surpassed the AVE values, providing statistical evidence of the study's assessments' significance.

Table 4. Discriminant validity using HTMT ratio

Source: Data analysis

4.5 Structural model of the tested hypotheses

After the measurement process, which assessed the validity and reliability of the constructs and addressed issues related to data normality, the study model was deemed satisfactory. Subsequently, the model yielded pertinent findings, enabling the evaluation of the structural model through a bootstrapping approach on the 246 respondents. The hypotheses tested are detailed in Table 5 and Table 6, while the structural model is depicted in Figure 2. Furthermore, bootstrapping approach was used with 5,000-resample supporting the suggestions of Leclercq-Machado et al. [67]. Table 5 illustrates the tested direct hypotheses, adhering to the current research standards for hypothesis presentation.

Table 5. Direct effect of tested relationships

Source: Data analysis

Table 6. Indirect effect

Source: Data analysis

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Figure 2. PLS-SEM hypothesized structural model

Table 5 indicates the path coefficients, t-values and significant values are presented and Environmental Conservation (EC) exhibited a noteworthy impact on both Climate Intervention (CI) and Women Empowerment (WE). The path coefficient for EC → CI was 0.552; p = 0.003 and t = 6.745. Similarly, the effect of Women Empowerment on Climate Intervention (WE → CI) was significant, with a coefficient of 0.348, p = 0.006, and t = 2.509. Additionally, the association between Environmental Conservation and Women Empowerment (EC → WE) was highly significant, with a coefficient of 0.481, p < 0.000, and t = 9.489. To summarize, the statistical analysis, as presented in Table 5, confirms the significance of the relationships EC → CI, WE → CI, and EC → WE. Hence, the hypotheses H1, H2 and H3 are supported by the research data.

Table 6 outlines the examined indirect or mediating impact of women empowerment on the connection between environmental conservation and climate intervention. As depicted, there is indeed a mediating influence of women empowerment (WE) between environmental conservation (EC) and climate intervention (CI). The results indicate a notable mediating effect, supporting the fourth hypothesis (H4, EC → WE → CI) with a coefficient of 0.267, a t-value of 3.274, and a p-value of 0.015. Hence, the hypothesis H4 is supported by the research data.

Though this study offers significant insights into the complex interrelationships between women empowerment, environmental protection, and climate intervention, it is imperative to recognize key limitations that may affect the applicability and interpretation of the study findings. As majority of the findings are self-reported, there could be a chance of social desirability bias, in which participants give answers that they believe to be socially acceptable rather than ones that accurately reflect their views or actions. The accuracy of stated environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions may be impacted by this possible bias. Second, the unique cultural and contextual characteristics of the study population may limit the generalizability of the findings. Cultural variations in attitudes towards environmental conservation and women empowerment might affect the applicability of our results to diverse settings.

Moreover, the study predominantly focuses on a set of predefined variables, overlooking other potential influencers and mediators. The complexity of environmental issues and empowerment dynamics may entail additional variables that were not considered in our research. Few unexpected results, such as disparities in empowerment levels among demographic groups are suggested as underlying social inequalities. Exploring these anomalies could unveil systemic barriers to empowerment. Addressing such disparities by future researchers is vital for devising targeted interventions to ensure equitable opportunities for all women, mitigating the risk of perpetuating existing inequalities. Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of our study limits our ability to establish causality definitively. A more thorough understanding of the periodic links between climate action, women empowerment, and environmental conservation may be obtained through longitudinal study. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, this study provides insightful information about how these categories are related to one another and lays the groundwork for future studies that will examine these connections more thoroughly and among a wider range of people.