OPEN ACCESS
Changes in planning practices can be explained from the prevailing theoretical juxtaposition of ‘institutional design’ and ‘institutional evolution’; two schools of thought that are at the extremes of assumptions on modifi ability. The two extremes are considered to be inextricably linked to each other and cannot be separated; institutional design at a higher level highly infl uences institutional evolution at a lower level. In this paper we add the opposite direction of their interdependence. We found that small and sometimes even unexpected efforts of institutional design at a low level of scale can, when aggregated, result into an evolution of collective institutions at a higher level. We participated in a cooperative project between research and practice, which was established as an exchange project on innovation in land development. We investigated the genesis of institutional change in land development, which is a specifi c regional planning instrument. We analyzed 40 planning practices that were presented by land agencies from seven EU regions (Flanders, the Netherlands, North Rhine–Westphalia, Galicia, Portugal, Hungary, and Lithuania) as their most innovative ones. We studied the histories of 14 of them intensively, using grounded data gathered in visits, discussions, and in-depth interviews with key persons. We found great similarity across these 14 cases in terms of the distinctive patterns relating to local processes leading up to systemic innovations: seemingly small, local, often unexpected and unpredictable occurrences appeared to have set the process of innovation in motion. The evidence demonstrates the relevance of the landscape metaphor found in theories on Complex Adaptive Systems for understanding institutional change in planning practice.
complexity theory, innovation, land development, planning
[1] Timmermans, W. et al., Innovation: expecting the unexpected. Farland, near Future, eds P. Van der Jagt, et al, 4C Hungary, pp. 32–45, 2007.
[2] Van Dijk, T., Transplanting instruments that work: four practical lessons on eliminating erro-nous assumptions. Planning Theory and Practice, 7(4), pp. 421–442, 2006b. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1080/14649350600984758
[3] Prigogine, I. & Stengers, I., Order out of Chaos. Bantam Books: New York, 1984.
[4] Buitelaar, E., Lagendijk, A. & Jacobs, W., A theory of institutional change: illustrated by Dutch city provinces and Dutch land policy. Environment and Planning A, 39, pp. 891–908, 2007.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a38191
[5] Hayek, F.A., The Constitution of Liberty. Routledge: London, 1960.
[6] Kingdon, J.W., Agendas, alternatives and public policies. Harper Collins College Publishers: New York, 1984.
[7] Barras, R., Interactive innovation in fi nancial and business services. Research Policy, 19, pp. 215–237, 1990. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333(90)90037-7
[8] Miozzo, M. & Soete, L., Internationalisation of services: a technological perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 67, pp. 159–185, 2001. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0040-1625(00)00091-3
[9] Drejer, I., Identifying innovation in surveys of services: a Schumpeterian perspective. Research Policy, 33(3), pp. 551–562, 2004. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2003.07.004
[10] Miles, I., Services innovation: coming of age in the knowledge-based society. International Journal of Innovation Management, 4(4), pp. 371–389, 2000. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S1363-9196(00)00020-2
[11] Saviotti, P.P. & Metcalfe, J.S., A theoretical approach to the construction of technological output indicators. Research Policy, 13(3), pp. 141–151, 1984. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ 0048-7333(84)90022-2
[12] Coombs, R. & Miles, I., Innovation measurement and services: the new problematique. Innovation Services in the Services Economy: Measurement and Case Study Analysis, eds. J.S. Metcalfe & I. Miles, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Boston, pp. 85–103, 2000.
[13] Geels, F.W., Processes and patterns in transitions and system innovations: refi ning the co-evolutionary multi-level perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72(6), pp. 681–696, 2005. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2004.08.014
[14] Tukker, A. & Butter, M., Governance of sustainable transitions: about the 4(0) ways to change the world. Journal of Cleaner Production, 15, pp. 94–103, 2007. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.08.016
[15] Kash, D.E. & Rycroft, R., Emerging patterns of complex technological innovation. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 69, pp. 581–606, 2002. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0040-1625(01)00171-8
[16] Macintosh, R. & MacLean, D., Conditioned emergence: a dissipative structures approach to transformation. Strategic Management Journal, 20(4), pp. 297–316, 1999. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199904)20:4<297::AID-SMJ25>3.0.CO;2-Q
[17] Cheng, Y.T. & Van Der Ven, A.H., Learning the innovation journey: order out of chaos. Organization Science, 7(6), pp. 593–614, 1996. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.7.6.593
[18] Ayres, R.U., Toward a non linear dynamics of technological progress. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 24, pp. 35–69, 1994. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ 0167-2681(94)90053-1
[19] Van Holst, F. & Thomas, J., Once upon a time an a Far, FARLAND. Editorial. Farland, near Future, eds P. Van der Jagt, et al. 4C Hungary, pp. 9–11, 2007.
[20] Lopez, Q.O. et al., What’s cooking in land development? Farland, near Future, eds P. Van der Jagt, et al, 4C Hungary, pp. 16–31, 2007.
[21] Magel, H., Urban Rural Relationship for Sustainable Development. 2nd FIG Regional Conference. Geomatik. Schweiz, 2004.
[22] Steudler, D., Rajabifard, A. & Williamson, I.P., Evaluation of land administration systems. Land Use Policy, pp. 371–380, 2004. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2003.05.001
[23] Bromley, D.W., Land and economic development: new institutional arrangements for the 21st century. Toward a 2015 vision of land, a celebration of ICLPST’s 100 Regular sessions, 2006.
[24] Derlich, F., Land Consolidation: A key for Sustainable Development – French Experience. XXII FIG international congress, 2002.
[25] Eskildson, K.A, Danish land consolidation. The International Symposium FAO, GTZ, FIG, ARGE Landentwicklung and TUM on Land Fragmentation and Land Consolidation in CEEC:
A gate towards Sustainable Rural Development in the New Millennium, 2002.
[26] Uimonen, M., Actual developments of land consolidation in Finland. FIG Commission 7: Symposium on Modern Land Consolidation, 2004.
[27] Van Dijk, T. & Kopeva, D., Land banking and Central Europe: future relevance, current initiatives, Western European past experience. Land Use policy, 23(3), pp. 286–301, 2006.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2004.07.005
[28] Prigogine, I. & Stengers, I., Order out of Chaos. Bantam Books: New York, 1984.
[29] Prigogine, I., Science, civilisation and democracy: values, systems, structures and affi nities. Futures, august 1986, pp. 493-507, 1986.
[30] Kauffman, S., The origins of order. Oxford University Press: New York, 1993.
[31] Gleick, J., Chaos: Making a New Science. Viking: Penguin, 1987.
[32] Waldrop, M.M., Complexity, the Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. Penguin books: London, 1992.
[33] Lewin, R., Complexity, Life at the Edge of Chaos. Macmilan: New York, 1992.
[34] Byrne, D., Complexity, confi gurations and cases. Theory Culture Society, 22, pp. 95–111, 2005. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276405057194
[35] Cilliers, P., Complexity, Deconstruction and Relativism. Theory Culture Society, 22, pp. 255–267, 2005. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276405058052
[36] Axtell, R. & Epstein, J. Growing Artifi cial Societies: Social Science from the Bottom Up. Brookings Institution: Washington DC, 1996.
[37] Barabasi, A., Linked. Perseus: Cambridge, 2002.
[38] Scheffer, M. et al., Early-warning signals for critical transitions. Nature, 461/3, pp. 53–59.
[39] Artigani, R., Leadership and uncertainty: complexity and the lessons of history. Futures, 37, pp. 595–603, 2005.
[40] Mason, R.B., The externa environment’s effect on management and strategy, a complexity theory approach. Management Decision, 45(1), pp. 10–28, 2007. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.1108/00251740710718935
[41] Green, N., Art and complexity in London’s East End. Complexity 4(6), pp. 14–21, 1999. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0526(199907/08)4:6<14::AID-CPLX3>3.0.CO;2-S
[42] Timmermans, W., Crises and Innovation in Sustainable Urban Planning. WIT Press. Advances in Architecture (18), pp. 53–63, 2004.
[43] Prigogine, I., Le fi n des certitudes (The end of certainty). Editions Odile Jacob: Paris. France, 1996.
[44] Pulselli, R.M. & Tiezzi, E., City out of chaos. WIT Press, 2009.
[45] Pulselli, R.M. & Romano, P., Urban Systems Dynamics. Alinea editrice: Firenze, 2009.
[46] Tiezzi, E., The Essence of Time. WIT Press: Southampton, Boston, 2003.
[47] Geraldi, J.G., The balance between order and chaos in Multi-project fi rms: a conceptual model. International Journal of Project management 26, pp. 348–356, 2008. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.08.013
[48] Hodgson, D., Project work: the legacy of bureaucratic control in the post-bureaucratic organization. Organization, 11, pp. 81–100, 2004. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1350508404039659
[49] Kelly, J. & Stark, D., Crisis, recovery, innovation: responsive organization after September 11. Environment and Planning A, 34, pp. 1523–1533, 2002. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a35176
[50] Schneider, M. & Somers, M., Organizations as complex adaptive systems: implications of Complexity Theory for leadership research. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, pp. 351–365, 2006. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.006
[51] Vicenzi, R. & Adkins, G., A tool for assessing organizational vitality in an era of complexity. Technical Forecasting and Societal Change, 64, pp. 101–113, 2000. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0040-1625(99)00074-8
[52] Anderson, P., Complexity Theory and Organisation Science. Organisation Science, 10(3), pp. 216–232, 1999. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.10.3.216
[53] Gell-Mann, M., Complex adaptive systems. Complexity: Metaphors, Models and Reality, eds. G.A. Cowan, D. Pines & D. Meltzer, Addison-Wesley: Reading, pp. 17–29,1994. [54] Pirsig, R.M., Lila, an inquiry to morals. Bantam, 1991.
[55] Shulla, K. & Timmermans, W., Unstable city. Surviving the Suburb, ed. G. Harbusch, et al., Episode Publishers: Rotterdam, 2008.
[56] Jonge, J. de, Landscape Architecture between Politics and Science, an Integrative Perspective on Landscape Planning and Design in the Network Society. PhD thesis Wageningen UR, 2009.
[57] Roggema, R.E. & Van Den Dobbelsteen, A.A.J.F., Swarm planning: development of a new planning paradigm, which improves the capacity of regional spatial systems to adapt to climate change. Proceedings World Sustainable Building Conference (SB08), September 2008, Melbourne, 2008.
[58] Crawford, T.W., Messina, J.P., Manson, S.M. & O’Sullivan, D., Guest editorial. Environment and Planning B. Planning and Design, 32, pp. 792–798, 2005. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/ b3206ed
[59] O’Sullivan, D., Complexity science and human geography. Trans Inst Br Geogr NS, 29, pp. 282–295, 2004. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-2754.2004.00321.x
[60] O’Sullivan, D., Manson, S.M., Messina, J.P. & Crawford, T.W., Guest editorial. Environment and Planning A, 38, pp. 611–617, 2006.
[61] Portugali, J., Complexity theory as a link between space and place. Environment and Planning A, 38, pp. 647–664, 2006. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a37260
[62] Manson, S., O’Sullivan, D., Complexity theory in the study of space and place. Environment and Planning A, 38, pp. 677–692, 2006. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a37100
[63] Cohen, J. & Stewart. I., The Collapse of Chaos, Discovering Simplicity in a Complex World. Viking, 1994.
[64] Geldof, G.D., Omgaan met complexiteit bij integraal waterbeheer. TAUW: Deventer, 2001. [65] Langton, C.G., Taylor, C., Farmer, J.D. & Rasmussen, S., Artifi cial life II. Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity. Proceedings vol. 10. Redwood City, 1992.
[66] Levinthal, D.A. & Warglien, M., Landscape Design: designing for local action in complex worlds. Organisation Science, 10(3), pp. 342–357, 1999. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/ orsc.10.3.342
[67] Glaser, B. & Strauss, A., The discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine: Chicago, 1967.
[68] Strauss, A.L. & Gorbin, J., Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks. CA Sage, 1998.
[69] Charmaz, K., Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis,Sage publishers: London, 2006.
[70] O’Connor, M.K., Ntting, F.E. & Thomas, M.L., Grounded Theory: Managing the challenge for those facing Institutional Review Board oversight. Qualitative Inquiry, 14(1), pp. 28–45, 2008. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077800407308907
[71] Timmermans, W., The complex planning of innovation. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 122, pp. 581–590, 2009. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/ECO090531
[72] INE (National Statistics Institute) Cifras ofi ciales de población: padrónmunicipal, available at http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=/t20/e245/&fi le=inebase, 1993, 2001, 2002.
[73] Eurostat, Farm Structure Survey 2003, 2007. available at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/agriculture/data/database.
[74] Timmermans, W., Beyond predictability. Management of natural resources, sustainable develoment and ecological hazards. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 1, pp. 13–19, 2006.
[75] Batty, M., Editorial. Environment and Planning B. Planning and design, 35, pp. 379–380.
[76] Uprichard, E. & Byrne, D., Representing complex places: a narrative approach. Environment and Planning A, 38, pp. 665–676, 2006. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a37333
[77] Montalvo, C., What triggers change and innovation? Technovation, 26, pp. 312–323, 2006. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2004.09.003
[78] Chapman, R. & Hyland, P., Complexity and learning behaviors in product innovation. Technovation, 24, pp. 553–561, 2004. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4972(02)00121-9