Public Perception of Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) Conservation Adequacy and Future Initiatives in a University-Based Conservation Area: Evidence from SFERA@UMS, Sabah

2.1 Awareness of the Sunda pangolin

Studies indicate that the general awareness of the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) among people varies a lot among individuals in Southeast Asia. According to a study [1], although most non-pangolin inhabitants in Sabah, Malaysia, know that pangolins are critically endangered, as identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), there is a wide knowledge gap in how the species functions and its behavioral characteristics [1]. This can decrease the participation of communities in conservation programs since, without knowledge of the significance of the species, it is not possible to instill proactive behaviors among the local communities.

Moreover, an article [4] reviewed the phylogenetics of the Sunda pangolin as well as conservation management. They observed that although genetic information is being captured, the understanding of such aspects by the whole society remains limited. The research underlines that increasing awareness concerning both genetic variations and the ecological importance of the Sunda pangolin can help toward more effective joint efforts.

Myths involving the Sunda pangolin promote people's ignorance of people towards the protection of creatures. Some cultural beliefs and traditional practices, especially in the region where the pangolins are regarded as a medicine source, make it difficult to protect them. According to research [5], such beliefs show that there is an urgent need to conduct education campaigns that can change the perspective on these ideas [5]. This is because such campaigns can explain how pangolins are ecologically important, thus changing their value outside a medical setting.

Moreover, it is revealed in a study conducted by Yodsheewan et al. [6] that, in general, individuals are not aware of the levels of threats to pangolins (poaching and the destruction of habitats), which is the main underlying reason for their endangered status. These threats need to be raised at an awareness level because such facts can arouse the masses and their desire to preserve the environment.

Educational outreach is crucial in increasing awareness among people about the Sunda pangolin and building the ground to support conservation efforts [7], focusing on the vitality of community education as a method of generating population acknowledgment and love of pangolins. Communities can be enlightened through strategic educational programs that will eventually increase the number of community members joining the cause of saving the species. According to Cen et al. [8], the awareness gap might be filled with the use of local knowledge in a conservation framework, forming a more informed society that is willing to take part in the preservation.

2.2 Attitude towards conservation

It has been proven that Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) is critical in conservation planning of the Sunda pangolin. LEK may be used as a helpful tool in understanding trends related to pangolin exploitation, noting that this kind of information is essential in predicting proper methods of conservation [9]. The research shows that members of the community have in-depth knowledge of the ecological forces and can inform conservation activities and crack down on illegal activities linked with the pangolin trade. Taking into consideration the indigenous knowledge may improve the outcomes of the legislative actions trying to preserve pangolins.

Suwal et al. [10] discovered that many citizens of Nepal had heard about pangolins and could identify them, but they did not know anything about the ecological, reproductive, and behavioral characteristics of the species. Such a gap compromises efficient conservation practice. An educational program to raise awareness about the environmental value of the Sunda pangolin can create a stronger sense of commitment on the part of the general population.

One of the most important sources of influence on pangolin conservation attitudes is community participation. Research indicates that the more the local communities are actively involved in the process of making conservation policies or in the management of the resources, the more they will contribute towards conservation of the species. Community-based conservation strategies that would increase the levels of local involvement in conservation initiatives are highly emphasized [11]. This kind of participation strengthens communities and makes conservation activities more locally relevant to the requirements and livelihoods.

According to Emogor et al. [12], economic factors and societal beliefs regarding trade in wildlife animals, including pangolins, can change perceptions regarding pangolin conservation after the COVID-19 pandemic. Tightening up a little bit further, people feel more motivated to conserve when they feel that there is a drop in the populations of wild pangolins, an important correlation that exists between awareness of the vulnerability of the species and the readiness and ability of people to get involved in any conservation initiatives.

Education is the key to changing attitudes toward the preservation of other critically endangered species like the Sunda pangolin. An extremely encouraging level of positive attitude (93.34%) toward pangolin conservation was identified in relation to the local Malaysian population [1]. Their findings imply that the area of creating awareness regarding the ecological role and conservation adequacy, and future initiatives of pangolins, can make a huge difference in gaining public support.

The research highlights the relationship between educational outreach and increased conservation attitude, and it is highly recommended that concerted efforts should be made to create awareness and inculcate habits that may help in saving the pangolins. The study performed by Ghimire et al. [13] highlights the role of locally organized anti-poaching forces in Nepal, and according to the research, appropriate training and incentives enhance regional adherence to the laws of conservation. Engaged, well-informed communities are more likely to view any conservation activity more positively, thereby ensuring that more people become compliant with the conservation mechanisms. Attend conferences, workshops, and symposiums in the same fields or on related counterparts.

2.3 Perceived human threats

Top on the list of perceived threats to the Sunda pangolin is the illicit wildlife trade, which has classified it as one of the most trafficked mammals in the world [14]. Nga et al. [5] reported that the high consequences of such trade, where the capture and further trade of pangolins not only deplete the populations of animals but also could help the development of some rabid diseases such as SARS-CoV-2. This relationship has brought pangolins to the center of the stage of both public health and the conservation of wildlife, as well as increasing attention to risks that consumer relationships in the live animal trade lead to.

The patterns of pangolin trafficking are still under investigation, with some studies indicating a tendency to combine bad routes with other economic and sociocultural dynamics, which makes it a challenging task to intervene in this activity [15]. Also, Zhang et al. [14] claimed that pangolins have also been pulled out of the wild due to the high demand for the meat and scales of pangolins used in traditional medicine, further worsening their declines and the ecological imbalance.

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Figure 1. Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) scales syndicate around 109.54 kg in West Kalimantan, Indonesia on 17^th February 2024

For example, Figure 1 shows an operation by the SPORC Brigade Bekantan in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, in February 2024 that managed to thwart 109.54 kilograms of Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) scales from being smuggled out of the Sintang Regency to Pontianak and Kubu Raya [16]. The case demonstrates the current danger posed to the existence of pangolins, whose scales continue to be sought after despite the species of CITES and hence afforded national protection. The incident also highlights the importance of raising awareness and community participation towards fighting the trafficking of wildlife, which forms the purpose of the study to determine the degree of influence that individuals have in ensuring their participation in supporting the conservation of pangolins.

Another terrible threat to the sustainability of Sunda pangolins is habitat destruction. When forests are converted to agricultural lands or urban terrains, the natural habitat of these forests is interfered with, resulting in fragmentation and isolation of populations [17]. Research that was carried out by Aziz et al. [18] in Singapore points out that not only does habitat loss contribute to the general reduction of the population but also worsens human-pangolin conflicts through road traffic collisions [18]. The effects emphasise the necessity of combined conservation that also involves the aspect of habitat protection as part of the practice of protecting the pangolins.

2.4 Public perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future initiatives

Public awareness regarding the conservation adequacy and future initiatives of the Sunda pangolin sets forth an intermediate perception amongst the locals. A survey in Sabah, Malaysia, identified that the people in the area are aware of the IUCN status of the Sunda pangolin, but there is a lack of information on how and where they can find them, such as on Gaya Island [1]. This ignorance may hinder conservation initiatives, where the participation of people is vital when it comes to taking effective protective actions. Anasari et al. [19] also focus on the necessity of awareness campaigns because local people tend to use natural resources and thus must be included in the conservation initiatives to develop a feeling of responsibility toward their habitat.

The culture beliefs are relevant in pangolin conservation attitudes. Studies show that experiences with local wildlife influence beliefs regarding the need and urgency of conservation practices. In addition to positive attitudes, community engagement in conservation can be associated with community involvement in conservation programs, which are observed in other conservation cases [20]. The legal implications of hunting pangolins should be made known to the population through education in places where the practice is rampant. Indicatively, the risks to pangolins have been well established, and there is a dire need to organize effective awareness programs to educate the population about the pangolin trade being illegal [6, 21].

Conservation policies must promote local knowledge and institutionally formulated conservation policies. Information gathered during the community surveys on local ecology could be crucial, and pangolin studies in Southeast Asia proved that [3]. In addition, Suwal et al. [10] identified people who responded better to participating in the conservation process with higher knowledge of pangolins, emphasizing the importance of educational measures. Nevertheless, local representation in conservation decision-making has been observed to lead to more sustainable results, emphasizing the possibilities of community-based conservation strategies [20].

Hence, educative initiatives are important in addressing misconceptions such as this. In this regard, university-based conservation areas such as SFERA@UMS should conduct research to understand the public’s perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and potential future initiatives. By assessing local beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge, conservationists can create communication messages that will resonate with the public and, hopefully in the long run, have community support behind them and eventually be more effective. Creating a positive public image is essential to the Sunda pangolin's future; for example, creating a feeling of stewardship will lead to more support, lowered threats, and improved conservation.

2.5 Theoretical framework

This study was informed by theoretical frameworks emphasizing the association of awareness, attitudes, and PHT with conservation-related perceptions and support. Specifically, the research was built on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Environmental Awareness Framework (EAF). TPB was not strictly applied in this study, as behavioural intention was not directly assessed.

The TPB, highlighted by Ajzen [22], serves as an appropriate foundation for investigating the significance of attitude in conservation-related responses. The theory suggests that behaviour can be further explained by attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control [22]. Nonetheless, attitude towards conservation (ATC) was not investigated in this study as a direct predictor of behavioural intention, but rather regarded as an attitudinal explanatory factor that may be associated with the respondent’s perception of conservation adequacy and future-related initiatives concerning the Sunda pangolin at SFERA@UMS.

Besides TPB, the EAF also assists in rationalizing the role of awareness, environmental concern, and perceived recognition of threats in influencing conservation-related perceptions. The framework states that awareness may advance to enhanced concerns and support for conservation-related measures [23]. This study applied a narrow understanding of awareness as related to knowledge of the Sunda pangolin, its ecological importance, and its threatened status; while perceived human threats encompassed awareness of the human-induced pressures of habitat loss, poaching, and illegal wildlife trade.

According to the theoretical framework and proposed hypotheses, the conceptual framework demonstrating the relationship among awareness, ATC, perceived human threats, and public perceptions of conservation adequacy and future trends is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Theoretical framework

Such theoretical positioning is pertinent to the outreach and education functions of SFERA@UMS in awareness creation and conservation communication concerning the Sunda pangolin. However, this should not be taken as presumptive of the manner in which awareness, ATC, and PHT will equally impact the respondents’ perception of conservation adequacy and future-related initiatives in the university-based conservation area [24]. Therefore, this study framed the assumption that more knowledge, positive ATC, and perceived recognition of human threats may promote better perception of conservation adequacy and future-related initiatives for the Sunda pangolin at SFERA@UMS.

4.1 Demographic analysis

A total of 377 respondents participated in this study. All demographic items recorded valid responses with no missing data. The analysis includes respondents’ age, gender, level of education, respondent category, and their enrolment in the environmental module.

The respondents were categorized into six age groups. The largest group was 18-24 years with 261 respondents (69.2%), followed by 25-34 years with 64 respondents (17.0%). The remaining respondents were under 18 years (15 respondents, 4.0%), 35-44 years (24 respondents, 6.4%), 45-54 years (12 respondents, 3.2%), and above 54 years (1 respondent, 0.3%). Although most respondents were adults, individuals under 18 years old were also included because part of the study population consisted of secondary school students who come to UMS. These students are relevant to the research as they represent the younger generation whose awareness, attitudes, and perceptions toward wildlife conservation are important for long-term conservation success. The gender distribution indicates that 307 respondents (81.4%) were female and 70 respondents (18.6%) were male. Most respondents held a Bachelor's degree (271 respondents, 71.9%). This was followed by Pre-university (44 respondents, 11.7%), Secondary education (32 respondents, 8.5%), and Master's degree (19 respondents, 5.0%). A smaller number of respondents reported no formal education (8 respondents, 2.1%), a Doctorate (2 respondents, 0.5%), and Primary education (1 respondent, 0.3%). All the respondents have no problems with reading and writing. Respondents with no formal education were included because the study aimed to be inclusive of all segments of the community, not only those with higher academic backgrounds. Environmental awareness and perceptions toward conservation are influenced not only by formal schooling. Respondents were categorized into three groups. Most respondents were UMS students (227 respondents, 60.2%). The remaining respondents were equally distributed between public members of UMS and visitors, with each group comprising 75 respondents (19.9%). In terms of environmental module enrolment, 317 respondents (84.1%) reported that they were enrolled in an environmental module, while 60 respondents (15.9%) reported that they were not enrolled.

4.2 Descriptive analysis

Based on Table 5, descriptive statistics were calculated for all items pertaining to the four study constructs, namely ASP, ATC, PHT, and PPC. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale, from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The descriptive statistics of each item, including the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation, are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Descriptive analysis

According to the refined descriptive statistics, the mean values of ASP were noted between 2.30 and 4.47, and their standard deviations were recorded between 0.872 and 1.318. The highest mean was obtained for ASP1, where respondents noted their awareness of the Sunda pangolin being listed as critically endangered (M = 4.47, SD = 0.872). The lowest mean was obtained for ASP5, which referred to participation in events or activities meant to raise awareness about Sunda pangolin conservation (M = 2.30, SD = 1.318). This finding shows that while the respondents had a general awareness of this species' endangered status, their direct efforts to participate in conservation awareness activities were low.

As for ATC, the mean values were noted between 4.07 and 4.65; the standard deviations were recorded between 0.735 and 1.070. The highest mean was obtained for ATC2, referring to the willingness to support government policies aimed toward promoting the conservation of the Sunda pangolin (M = 4.65, SD = 0.758). It shows that respondents were mostly favourable on the topic related to Sunda pangolin conservation and support for conservation-related policies.

In regard to PHT, the mean values were noted between 4.29 and 4.67, while the standard deviations were recorded between 0.722 and 0.931. The highest mean was recorded in PHT2, referring to illegal poaching being harmful to the survival of the Sunda pangolin (M = 4.67, SD = 0.732). Thus, the respondents strongly identified human-related threats, especially poaching, as affecting Sunda pangolin conservation.

For PPC, the mean values were noted between 2.98 and 4.08, while the standard deviations were recorded between 0.955 and 1.276. The highest mean (4.08) was recorded (M = 4.08, SD = 0.955) for PPC3, while the lowest mean was recorded for PPC1, regarding whether current conservation initiatives are perceived as sufficient (M = 2.98, SD = 1.176). This indicates that the respondents are moderately optimistic about future conservation initiatives, although they do not believe that current conservation initiatives are sufficient.

Additionally, not all items were reverse-coded (i.e., reverse coding is converted to a range of values that relate to the statement). Higher scores represented greater agreement with the items, while lower scores suggested less agreement with the items.

Based on the distributions of responses in Table 6, the effects of the factors measured can be further explained. Most of the questions about ATC and Perceived Human Threats had high percentages for "strongly agree" responses, indicating positive feelings towards conservation actions and identifying human factors as a threat. For instance, ATC2 had a "strongly agree" rate of 75.6%, while PHT2 had a stronger "strongly agree" rate of 77.2%. In contrast, ASP5 was lower, with 9.3% strongly agreeing and 38.5% strongly disagreeing with participating in awareness. Distributions were more moderate for PPC items, especially PPC1 and PPC2, where neutral was high. Skewness values show a negative skew for most items, indicating agreement, while ASP5 was positively skewed, as fewer were doing conservation awareness activities.

Table 6. Frequency distribution of response options and skewness for measurement items

4.3 Exploratory factor analysis

Exploratory Factor Analysis was performed to determine the construct validity of measurement items based on Table 7. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin was 0.896, indicating that the data were appropriate for factor analysis. Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant, χ²(190) = 3673.176, p < 0.001, verifying that the correlation matrix was suitable for factor analysis.

Based on Table 8, the factor loadings for the total items retained fell between 0.540 and 0.847, which is above the acceptable standard limit of 0.50. Thus, all the measurement items were retained for further analysis.

Table 9 explained the total variance by construct. The proportions of variance explained by each construct were from 48.581% to 65.585%. This demonstrated that the measurement items fitted the constructs and validated the scale (construct validity).

Table 7. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity

Table 8. Exploratory factor analysis results

Table 9. Total variance explained by construct

Table 10. Reliability analysis

4.4 Reliability analysis of constructs

Table 10 presents the results of the reliability analysis for all constructs used in the study. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha (a) to determine the internal consistency of items under each variable.

As indicated in Table 10, each of the constructs achieved Cronbach’s alpha values above the recommended threshold of 0.70, ranging from 0.730 to 0.854, suggesting acceptable to good internal consistency. Therefore, the questionnaire was reliable in measuring the awareness of Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), attitudes towards conservation, PHT, and the public perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future initiatives.

4.5 Normality test

Normality testing was conducted on the mean scores of each construct using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the Shapiro- Wilk test. It analysed all mean scores for Public perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future initiatives (PPC_MEAN), Awareness of the Sunda pangolin (ASP_MEAN), Attitude towards Conservation (ATC_MEAN), and Perceived Human Threats (PHT_MEAN). The findings are shown in Table 11.

Table 11. Normality test

The results indicated that all variables (PPC_MEAN, ASP_MEAN, ATC_MEAN, and PHT_MEAN) were not normally distributed (p < 0.05). Therefore, non-parametric statistical methods were used for further analysis.

4.6 Correlation analysis

Spearman correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationships between the study variables. It analysed all mean scores for Public perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future initiatives (PPC_MEAN), Awareness of the Sunda pangolin (ASP_MEAN), Attitude towards Conservation (ATC_MEAN), and Perceived Human Threats (PHT_MEAN). The correlation results are reported in Table 12.

Table 12. Correlation analysis

Spearman correlation analysis was performed to analyse the relationship among Public Perception of Conservation Adequacy and Future Initiatives (PPC_MEAN), Awareness of the Sunda pangolin (ASP_MEAN), Attitude towards Conservation (ATC_MEAN), and Perceived Human Threats (PHT_MEAN). The analysis revealed that all variables correlated positively and significantly. PPC_MEAN had a significant correlation with ASP_MEAN (ρ = 0.372, p < 0.001), ATC_MEAN (ρ = 0.260, p < 0.001), and PHT_MEAN (ρ = 0.173, p = 0.001). The strongest correlation was found between ATC_MEAN and PHT_MEAN (ρ = 0.634, p < 0.001, suggesting a moderate to strong positive relationship between attitude and PHT.

4.7 Regression assumption tests

Before performing multiple regression analysis, a number of diagnostic tests were conducted to assess the extent to which the regression assumptions were met. These included Multicollinearity, residual normality, residual independence, linearity, and influential point diagnostics. Multicollinearity was tested by Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values. Results indicated that all tolerance values were above 0.10 and all VIF values were below 10, with the highest VIF value being 2.389. This showed that there was no strong multicollinearity in the regression model.

Spearman correlation analysis indicated that the strongest relationship among predictors was between ATC and Perceived Human Threat (PHT), ρ = 0.634, p < 0.001. Although this provided evidence of moderate-to-high conceptual overlap among the two predictors, the VIF and tolerance values were acceptable. Hence, the overlap was not indicative of serious multicollinearity, but was considered when interpreting the unique contribution of each predictor in the regression model.

Residual normality was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test on standardised residuals. The result was not statistically significant, implying that the residuals were normally distributed. Residual independence was tested using the Durbin-Watson statistic. Results indicated a value of 1.852. This value was close to 2, indicating that residuals were independent. Linearity was tested using the Ramsey RESET test. The test was not statistically significant, indicating that there was no evidence of non-linearity in the model. Influential points were assessed using Cook’s distance. The maximum Cook's distance value was 0.058, which was below the conventional threshold of 1.00, suggesting that there were no highly influential observations that distorted the regression estimates. Table 13 presents the regression assumption test results, which are summarised.

Table 13. Regression assumption tests

4.8 Regression analysis

Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to determine how Awareness of the Sunda pangolin (ASP_MEAN), Attitude towards Conservation (ATC_MEAN), and Perceived Human Threat (PHT_MEAN) would affect Public Perception of Conservation Adequacy and Future Initiatives (PPC_MEAN). The multiple linear regression result is shown in Table 14.

Table 14. Multiple linear regression analysis

The present study used multiple linear regression analysis to determine the contribution of Awareness of the Sunda pangolin (ASP_MEAN), Attitude towards Conservation (ATC_MEAN), and Perceived Human Threats (PHT_MEAN) to Public Perception of Conservation Adequacy and Future Initiatives (PPC_MEAN). The final regression model was significant, F (3, 373) = 26.844, p < 0.001. The model explained 17.8% of the variance in PPC_MEAN and had an R² value of 0.178 and an adjusted R² value of 0.171, indicating reasonable explanatory power. It has been established in earlier studies that several cognitive, attitudinal, and contextual factors affect public perceptions of wildlife conservation [26]. Likewise, wildlife attitude studies have revealed that conservation-related perceptions are multidimensional and could be influenced by psychological, social, and contextual factors [27].

The regression analysis showed that ASP_MEAN was a significant predictor of PPC_MEAN (β = 0.278, p < 0.001). ATC_MEAN was also a significant predictor (β = 0.213, p = 0.004). Conversely, PHT_MEAN was not a significant predictor of PPC_MEAN after incorporating ASP_MEAN and ATC_MEAN predictors into the model (β = 0.001, p = 0.993). Thus, awareness and ATC were significant predictors of public perception of conservation adequacy and future initiatives, while PHT did not exhibit a significant effect when one controlled for the effects of other predictors in the multiple regression analysis.

4.9 Discussion

The findings of this study ought to be considered within the confines of SFERA@UMS as a campus forest and university-based conservation area. Although this study investigates public perception, the survey data collection was limited to respondents who participated in the survey in SFERA@UMS and UMS-related indicator contexts, including UMS students, staff, campus community, visitors, and the public, via the online survey. Therefore, the results ought not to be applied broadly to Malaysia's population of Sabahans. This implies that the results are limited to site-specific empirical evidence regarding how awareness, ATC, and PHT may predict respondents’ perception of adequacy and future initiatives of Sunda pangolin conservation at SFERA@UMS.

The correlation results demonstrated that awareness of the Sunda pangolin was positively and significantly associated with public perception of conservation adequacy and future initiatives (ρ = 0.372, p < 0.001). The regression analysis also reaffirmed that awareness was a positive and significant predictor of public perception (β = 0.278, p < 0.001). Hence, Hypothesis 1 was supported. This suggests that the respondents with more awareness of the Sunda pangolin, including its ecological roles and threatened situation, are more likely to evaluate conservation adequacy and future initiatives. This finding is in agreement with prior studies which demonstrate that knowledge about the subject and awareness of conservation is key to boosting conservation perception and support [1]. In the SFERA@UMS context, this demonstrates that education such as conservation programmes, interpretive communication, and outreach campaigns based on awareness remains a crucial strategy to enhance and promote public understanding of Sunda pangolin conservation.

The ATC was also significantly and positively correlated with public perception of conservation adequacy and future initiatives (ρ = 0.260, p < 0.001). In the regression model, ATC was a significant positive predictor of public perception (β = 0.213, p = 0.004), thus Hypothesis 2 was supported. This finding implies that the more conservation-positive attitudes the respondents had, the more likely they were to view conservation adequacy and future initiatives positively. Despite the fact that the TPB explains behavioural intention rather than perception generally, the finding suggests that attitude may still serve as an attitudinal explanation factor in tandem with respondents' evaluation of conservation initiatives, communications, policy support, and future conservation initiatives in the setting of SFERA@UMS [22]. Thus, strengthening conservation-positive attitudes through educational initiatives via the environment, such as education programmes to campus-based conservation initiatives or public engagement, should be a priority.

The PHT significantly and positively correlated with public perception at the bivariate level (ρ = 0.173, p = 0.001). However, PHT did not significantly predict public perception using the multiple regression model after awareness and ATC were included (β = 0.001, p = 0.993). Thus, Hypothesis 3 was not supported. This indicates that the visibility of human-associated threats is not solely perceived to identify future initiatives and conservation adequacy. This phenomenon can be explained by positing that threat visibility needs to manifest itself in a clearer awareness, conservation communication, and practical engagement to affect evaluation-based perceptions. This means that the respondents may understand that human detriments include habitat loss, poaching, illegal wildlife trade, and demands for traditional medicine; however, the established visibility of these threats may not necessarily affect them to positively evaluate differences in conservation initiatives.

The non-significant effect of PHT can also have a relation with the conceptual overlap with ATC. It was shown that a moderate to strong association (ρ = 0.634, p < 0.001) between PHT and ATC was demonstrated. Although regression diagnostic test results showed the VIF values fell below the conventional threshold and therefore did not significantly indicate that severe multicollinearity existed, this overlap indicated that part of the explanatory information captured by PHT may also overlap with conservation attitude information. Consequently, the PHT's unique effect was comparatively smaller as the awareness and attitude were simultaneously added to the regression model. However, this result ought to be taken carefully, as it does not imply that human threats are generally irrelevant for Sunda pangolin conservation. Rather, it demonstrates that perception needs to translate into awareness, communication, and positivity in conservation attitudes can significantly exhibit a stronger association with degree-level evaluation in this model context, even compared to perceived threats.

Regarding the corrected regression model, the corrected model was statistically significant, F(3, 373) = 26.844, p < 0.001, and explained 17.8% of the variance in public perception of conservation adequacy and future initiatives. This suggests modest explanatory consistency. Despite awareness and ATC being statistically significant predictors, the R² value shows that only 17.8% of the variance was explained by the model, where 82.2% of the variance remained unexplained, suggesting that the model ought to be taken cautiously. Additional factors included, but were not limited to the factors of direct exposure to SFERA@UMS conservatory activities, trust in conservatory institutions, media exposure, subject norms, perceived behavioural control, past wildlife exposure, and actual participation in conservation programming may predict how they perceive the conservatory's adequacy and future initiatives.

The findings can be elucidated using the TPB and EAF, as TPB was not inferred as a strict behavioural intention model. TPB explains how attitude is a crucial element regarding collective conservation-related responses. EAF elucidates how awareness may predict concern and support for conservation measures [22, 23]. In this study, awareness and attitudes towards conservation gained significance in predicting respondents' perception of the Sunda pangolin at SFERA@UMS. However, the PHT did not achieve statistical significance after the inclusion of the other two predictors in the model, indicating that threat recognizability is not merely sufficient to predict conservation perception unless accompanied by awareness, communication, and a conservation-positive attitude.

The findings also provide a link between the public perception literature and nature-based sustainable design. Nature-based conservation solutions include but are not limited to habitat protection, ecological restoration, conservation education trails, interpretive signage, low-impact visitor management, and community-based monitoring activities in the SFERA@UMS ecological context. However, the solutions' success depends on ecological suitability, social acceptance, and public engagement. When UMS and the campus community are aware of the Sunda pangolin and possess a relatively positive attitude regarding conservation, the proposed nature-based conservation makes it easier to gain acceptance and support from the public.

Thus, the social foundation can be predicated on public perception as a basis for nature-based conservation planning in the campus forest context. For instance, at SFERA@UMS, habitat restoration zones or protection zones will undeniably serve as a better conservation initiative if the campus community and visitors see the benefits attached to its restoration for Sunda pangolin conservation. Similarly, conservation signage, guided educational trails, and awareness programmes can elucidate ecologically designed support and learning processes via public understanding. The findings further imply that SFERA@UMS management can extend current conservation initiatives by combining ecological restoration and communication, awareness, and attitude strengthening into core future initiatives.

4.10 Implications of the study

There are some implications of this study. In terms of practical implications, the results indicate that conservation communication at SFERA@UMS should focus on two areas: the first one is to maintain awareness-building programs, and the second one is to enhance threat-oriented education, particularly of less visible threats such as habitat degradation and landscape change. The recommendation is substantiated by the fact that the importance of awareness and perceived threats is significant in terms of their predictive value in terms of forming a perception among the population. In the case of outreach design, it is that campaigns must not merely be used to propagate "support conservation" messages but also convey clear, locally specific threat pathways and what actions alleviate such threats.

Secondly, implications for policy and programs. As this awareness and threat perception can play a key role in shaping the collective perception, this evidence can be used by SFERA@UMS and conservation stakeholders such as educators, NGOs, and campus sustainability units to explain more specific awareness modules, guided forest-learning classes, and interpretive signage that directly ties human behaviours to pangolin dangers. These actions can reinforce perception of conservation and, finally, participation.

These findings offer significant insights for nature-based sustainable design and conservation planning in SFERA@UMS, as the impact of public awareness and ATC directly influenced the perception of Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future actions; it could be recommended to integrate ecological design, public engagement, and conservation communication into all conservation actions or policy-making. However, although PHT were not significantly predicted by the regression model, information about them is important to enhance awareness of conservation and education. Nature-based conservation solutions such as habitat-sensitive pathways, conservation education trails, interpretive boards, restoration zones, and visitor management systems should be designed in tandem with awareness campaigns and participatory education programs. This can enhance public understanding, improve local support, and increase the implementation effectiveness of conservation initiatives. On the management side, public perception data are useful to conservation planners in assessing if the community is ready to accept nature-based conservation solutions. Higher public support can lead to higher acceptance of habitat protection measures, whereas lower awareness shows a need to familiarize local communities with them before designing conservation interventions. Hence, the study offers a social evidence base for designing conservation strategies that are ecologically appropriate, socially acceptable, and compatible with campus forest.

In theory, this study makes an academic contribution to research on conservation perception, as awareness and changes in attitude toward conservation have contributed to public perception of the conservation adequacy and future initiatives at SFERA@UMS. Though the TPB usually refers to the intention of an action, this study did not measure the intention; thus, were added as an attitudinal explanatory variable rather than being a TPB approach to the intention pathway. The non-significant effect of PHT indicates that awareness of the threats was not enough to shape perception of the conservation adequacy without being followed by awareness of conservation, conservation communication, and action. Future studies may have to enhance the model by including subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, behavioural intention, and actual conservation action.

4.11 Limitations of the study

Although it offers some valuable insights, there are several limitations, which should be noted. First, the convenience sampling method was employed in this research at SFERA@UMS, which implies that participants were selected according to the convenience factor, and not based on a random mechanism. Due to this fact, the sample is not likely to be representative of the larger population that is not present at the university. Consequently, the results can be subject to the perception of a particular group of people who are more familiar with conservation information, and the findings cannot be generalised to other communities or populations.

Second, self-reported data from questionnaires were used in the study, which may lead to bias. There is also a possibility of the respondents providing answers that they think are right or acceptable in society since conservation is regarded as a positive value. This may make the findings seem more pro-conservation. Third, the research employed a cross-sectional design and only gathered information at one time. As much as this technique is effective in establishing the relationship among variables, it does not demonstrate cause and effect or how perceptions are likely to vary over time. Thus, the research is unable to establish the causality of awareness or threat perceptions on the intensification of conservation perceptions, just that there is a relationship.

This study is limited due to the convenience sampling techniques and the composition of respondents. Since the respondents were predominantly UMS students, staff, campus community members, visitors, and on-site accessible public, the findings of this paper cannot be generalised to the overall Sabah population. Therefore, future studies should be carried out using a larger and more diverse sample, including local communities, conservation agencies, rural settlements, and other public populations, to enhance the generalisability of findings.

This is a list of limitations of the study in terms of the explanatory power of the regression model. Although the model explained 27.3% of the variance in public perception towards Sunda pangolin conservation adequacy and future initiatives, a greater part of the variance was unexplained. This signifies that other relevant factors such as direct conservation exposure, trust in conservation institutions, media influence, environmental values, prior wildlife experience, and socio-demographic characteristics may influence public perception too. Future studies should incorporate these variables to build a more comprehensive model of public perception towards Sunda pangolin conservation.

So, in conclusion to this study, this study used convenience sampling in this study which has limited representativeness of the findings. The sample included students, staff, visitors, and the public. However, respondents were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study. Hence, the findings should be interpreted as empirical evidence of the insights of the respondents in this study but not as generalisable evidence about the entire UMS population. Future studies may use probability sampling or stratified sampling to study a more representative sample across the different respondent groups.