Exploring the Roles of Environmental Non-Governmental Organisations in the Context of Malaysian Climate Change Governance

Climate change is one of the main issues in global governance that have garnered considerable attention from countries worldwide as it has been projected to have an adverse impact on human civilisation. According to the Emissions Gap Report 2020, the global trend shows a pattern of temperature rise of more than 3℃, despite a slight reduction in carbon dioxide emissions due to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. The crisis is alarming as the temperature has risen significantly above the 2℃ Paris Agreement target [1]. In Malaysia, the effects of climate change are observed from sea level rise, surface temperatures, heavy rainfall and extreme weather events. The condition poses potential effects on biodiversity, forestry, agriculture, human health, energy, water resources, and coastal and marine resources [2, 3].

In response to the adverse effects of climate change, there has been an urgent call for “good” climate change governance with effective mitigation and adaptation policies. Although climate change governance has been largely associated with developed countries, it is no longer an option for developing states, including newly industrialised and low-income nations, to forego climate change mitigation and adaptation policies [4]. All governments, then, are responsible for transforming public opinion and perception in order to maintain societal support for the national climate policy [4].

Mayntz [5] defines governance as the collective rule of societal groups through cooperation between civil society and other stakeholders to achieve a sovereign governmental decision. The definition provides the viewpoint that governance involves cooperation between state and non-state actors in the political decision-making process. In the context of climate change, Fröhlich and Knieling [6] emphasised that the governance approach necessitates the collaboration of versatile actors. They argued that participatory governance could increase the perceived legitimacy of the climate policies and enhance implementation by way of collaboration with civil society, private, and public sectors.

Another approach in governing climate change is through multi-level governance, as described by Jänicke [7]. Decision-making related to climate change occurs at three levels of governance. Global, national, and local levels of governance involving multi-actor participation are crucial in dealing with the complex impact of climate change on social and economic activities. At the global level, climate change governance is based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. On the domestic level, the governance framework is based on the national climate change policies that shape the strategies and approaches that address issues at the national and local levels by state and non-state actors such as civil society and businesses. Although Jänicke [7] viewed climate change governance from a structural perspective, he acknowledged the vital role of non-government stakeholders at all governance levels. In this respect, the element of stakeholder participation in climate change governance is considered optimal for engendering quality mitigation and adaptation policy process.

Climate change governance is a global environmental and societal challenge [6]. Many policies have been formulated at the national level as initiatives to combat climate change following the goals set out in various global climate agreements that they have ratified, particularly Montreal Protocol 1987, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992, Kyoto Protocol 2005 and Paris Agreement 2015. Nevertheless, the implementation of a climate change programme depends on effective governance at the national policy level [8]. As a developing country, Malaysia has taken part in the global initiative under the Paris Agreement 2015 to reduce greenhouse gases by 45 per cent by 2030 [9]. Before the Malaysian government ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016, the government had introduced the National Climate Change Policy 2009, which outlined precautionary actions via mitigation and adaptation strategies. The policy adopts the principle of stakeholder participation (e.g., ENGOs) in assisting the government with raising public awareness and implementing policy. Undoubtedly, climate change governance requires the participation of various stakeholders, such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), to successfully address climate change issues domestically. NGOs that focus on environmental issues or environmental NGOs (ENGOs) contribute significantly to climate change governance. As a non-state actor, an ENGO works independently and can influence the governance process.

As one of the key stakeholders in climate change governance, the ENGO can participate in various governance activities. Beginning from the negotiation process, ENGOs play an active role in formulating, implementing, and monitoring climate change policies. Primarily, ENGOs have a vital role in climate policy advocacy regardless of their sociopolitical orientation. As indicated by Liu et al. [10], although the Chinese government restricts civic space, NGOs could still advocate for policy change in addressing climate change. Also, Fröhlich and Knieling [6] have shown that ENGOs could contribute to effective climate change policy implementation through their advocacy works for climate actions. Besides climate advocacy, ENGOs in Ghana give the government climate data important for decision making on climate adaptation policies [11].

ENGOs can act as information brokers whereby they become an intermediary between society and the government. This can be observed when Greenpeace promotes climate action to policymakers on behalf of society [12]. ENGOs can deliver information from the government to society. Indonesian ENGOs, for example, have helped the government deliver information about the REDD+ programme to local communities in Kalimantan [13].

ENGOs have supplemented governmental function in building climate awareness among the public. Most ENGOs believe they play a crucial role in increasing public awareness of climate change issues [14]. Apart from that, ENGOs can also attain public legitimacy on governmental political decisions. This can be seen in the case of China, whereby active participation in governance activities has contributed toward enhancing public support and acceptance of the climate change policies [15].

Besides working with the government to increase public awareness, ENGOs deliver services through their partnership with the government. Pandey [16] mentioned that NGOs have a partnership with stakeholders, especially the government, in order to assist the institutions in the service delivery of climate mitigation and adaptation. The government may partner with ENGOs when implementing climate policies.

The aforementioned studies outline the critical role of ENGOs in the context of climate change governance. As governance involves various activities at different policy-making stages, ENGOs are presumed to serve as crucial non-state actors and ensure viable climate policy at the domestic level. In addition to playing a significant role in governing climate change through activities that influence policy, ENGOs engage in climate advocacy, information exchange, and service delivery.

Malaysian ENGOs have been playing a significant role in enhancing environmental consciousness among the public while also safeguarding the environment and promoting sustainable development [17]. To be sure, they play a notable role in environmental governance, yet their role in climate change governance is still ill-defined. Some scholars have studied Malaysian ENGO as the subject, but they focused on their roles in environmental integrity [18], environmental communication [19], water issues [20] and how they influence public policy [21]. However, there is a dearth of discussion on the role of ENGOs in climate change governance in Malaysia. Furthermore, in Malaysia, climate change governance is largely based on a top-down approach [22], where most climate-related policy decisions are made by policymakers, thus restricting ENGOs to function effectively in the governance system. In such circumstances, there is a need to explore how ENGOs can play their roles in order to understand their value in climate change governance. Therefore, this article presents a qualitative study on ENGOs’ current roles in climate change governance in Malaysia. The study seeks to address the question “How can ENGOs contribute to climate change governance in Malaysia?”. It attempts to provide insights that could guide ENGOs and the government in improving climate change governance.

Data analyses revealed the roles played by ENGOs in climate change governance in Malaysia. Six broad themes (Figure 1) emerged from the analysis and are described as follows.

1.png

Figure 1. Themes on the roles of ENGOs in climate change governance

3.1 Political role

The data gathered from informant interviews reveal that ENGOs play a vital role in the political activities that lead to climate policy. So, ENGOs influence the policy-making process on climate change. In this vein, almost all informants reported that they aim to influence climate change policy, and they view their policy advocacy and collective efforts as impactful. The political role involves the activities of ENGOs in influencing the policy-making process on climate change. From the interviews, almost all informants reported that they aim to influence the policies related to climate change. They view all of their voluntary collective efforts as policy advocacy works. ENGO7 apprised that they advocate for climate change issues, and ENGO1 and ENGO6 informed that they advocate for more effective climate mitigation strategies and actions. ENGO3 advocate for indigenous rights in Borneo rainforests, particularly in Sarawak and ENGO4 advocate for youth inclusion in the climate change policy process.

ENGO7 noted that ENGOs try to influence climate change policy and lobby for improvements via individual and collective actions. Individual action may involve pointing out issues related to policy implementation and proposing ways for the government to fix such problems. Collective action, by contrast, involves voicing concerns through the ENGO coalition, namely, the Malaysian Climate Change Group (MCCG). They will compile their views, opinions, and perspectives and comprehensively convey their message(s) at formal meetings with the government. Another route toward climate advocacy, as explained by ENGO3, occurs through active discussion with communities in meetings and the media.

It was learned from the analysis that policy-influencing activities were performed in various ways. For instance, ENGO5 mentioned that they would include climate change issues in the dialogue with the government on wetland conservation. ENGO2, ENGO7, and ENGO8 said that they influence climate policies via diplomacy tactics such as lobbying, assisting the government in solving problems, drafting plans, policies, and laws, and sharing feedback about the policies with stakeholders. Nevertheless, they also stressed that confrontation is a necessary part of the process.

There were some negative comments relating to the diplomacy and confrontation involved with policy-influencing activities between ENGOs and the government. As observed by ENGO9, diplomacy in the context of climate change advocacy is less effective for policy change in Malaysia. Consequently, they take direct action such as climate strikes in order to get the government’s attention or to encourage the government to prioritise climate change on the national agenda. Meanwhile, ENGO3, sensing that the government is not very open to criticism, expressed misgiving about confrontation. They believe that criticism could result in their ouster, and they would be unable to influence policy. Thus, they communicate to the government indirectly through the media.

In short, some ENGOs were established as advocacy groups and aimed for improved policy. They advocate both individually and collectively for better climate policies by way of diplomacy. However, they may opt to use radical tactics to influence the government’s actions and fight for climate justice. These tactics may involve confrontation and direct action.

3.2 Informational role

Most informants agreed that the other primary role of ENGOs in the context of climate change governance is informational. It involves activities that produce and provide information on climate change to stakeholders such as the government, corporations, other NGOs and society. As most informants highlighted, the provision of information on climate change to stakeholders, especially government and society, is a crucial role performed by the ENGOs. They stated that they provide information openly to the public through various materials such as leaflets, books, and newspaper articles. In one case, ENGO7 had provided documentaries on climate change that they shared with the other NGOs during seminars or conferences. However, the documentaries were not broadcast on a national television channel for public consumption. Therefore, they opted to use social media, such as Facebook and Youtube, and their websites to disseminate information on climate change, including the key outcomes of the meetings held by the governing body for UNFCCC that they attended, i.e. Conference of the Parties. As reported in Malaysia’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC [26], an ENGO held monthly climate change seminars to inform the public about the outcomes of international negotiations. The ENGO organised the seminars in collaboration with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and foreign embassies.

Despite having information at hand, ENGO5 mentioned that they would first verify the information with other agencies before disseminating it to the public to ensure that the information is reliable. Besides, ENGO9 noted that most climate change information is written in English with scientific terminologies. As a consequence, some ENGOs simplified climate information for public consumption in a common vernacular with infographic illustrations.

An informant from ENGO2 also noted that they provide information to stakeholders because they assume that they are the source of information on the ground. ENGO8 and ENGO9 noted that since they work closely with the communities, they know the reality and opinions at the grassroots level. Although ENGO4, ENGO7, and ENGO8 stated that they only represent affected demographics such as communities, corporations, and youth (vs. the general public), they could still bring public opinion about specific climate-related issues to the government as input for the purpose of decision making.

Five out of the ten ENGOs interviewed were involved in research activities with other organisations, including other NGOs and public universities, to generate new knowledge to benefit the government. For instance, an ENGO may collaborate with a public university in conducting a socio-ecological survey among indigenous people. In another case, an ENGO may conduct field research to produce scientific data independently with grants from an agency such as the government or corporation. As an example, Malaysia’s Third Communication and Second Biennial Update Report to the UNFCCC [27] stated that an ENGO collaborated with other agencies under the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security (CTI-CFF) to conduct research on the effects of climate change on marine biodiversity. ENGO also collaborated with the University of Malaysia Sabah (UMS) in 2013 and 2014 to conduct research on climate change vulnerability in Semporna, Sabah.

According to ENGO5, there is also the situation wherein other agencies request data from ENGOs. For instance, an agency can request data on the number of recycled items received by the ENGO at the recycling centre. Such data helps to measure the effectiveness of recycling programmes run by the government or a voluntary organisation. Another useful source of information for the government during project development is the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report. ENGO1 mentioned that they studied the potential environmental impact at the proposed project area and voluntarily made the report. They submitted the report to the agency in question in order to impart their suggestions on minimising environmental impact in the area.

To be sure, the aforementioned activities indicates that ENGOs play an informational role in climate change governance. They not only provide information about climate change to stakeholders but also give data-driven input for policymakers based on information they obtain from research and grassroots-level activities.

3.3 Educational role

In the context of climate change governance, the educational role of the ENGO consists of two main activities: They include increasing climate awareness and organising training in order to increase stakeholders’ knowledge about climate change. Most of the ENGOs stated that enhancing awareness and knowledge about climate change to the public is one of the most significant roles of ENGOs. For example, ENGO3 has undertaken several activities that aimed to increase indigenous people’s awareness about their land rights and the impact of the hydroelectric dam in Baram on their livelihood and, more generally, on climate change. In addition, ENGO2 has promoted an Ecological Footprint Analysis as an initiative to create public awareness about the resources consumed and waste generated by each person. Besides, ENGO9 noted that ENGOs also build public awareness about the roles that ENGOs play in addressing climate change. In particular, when ENGOs publicise their climate actions, it indirectly impacts public awareness about climate change.

Another method to enhance awareness about and knowledge of climate change among the stakeholders is through ENGO-organised training. Most ENGOs provide educational training for the public through seminars, workshops, courses, conferences, and open discussions. ENGOs’ initiatives on public awareness through seminars and campaigns were also highlighted in Malaysia’s Third National Communication and Second Biennial Update to the UNFCCC [27]. For example, an ENGO held its annual climate change dialogue, emphasising adaptation, mitigation, and UNFCCC negotiations. In 2015 and 2016, the ENGO held 13 seminars and 24 exhibitions on its renewable energy and efficiency roadshow, educating 290 attendees and 1,750 visitors about climate action. Additionally, numerous ENGOs co-organised an interfaith dialogue on climate change in 2015, which drew over 100 participants.

Beyond the general public, ENGOs also educate school children, university students, and various enterprises. For example, volunteers from ENGO6 educate school children and enterprises about recycling in order to reduce the waste that contributes to climate change. Also, ENGO4 aimed to improve juvenile knowledge about climate change; to this end, they collaborated with public universities to provide short courses to interested youth. Furthermore, ENGO9 focused on capacity building training for both juveniles and indigenous people. Although the informants did not mention providing formal training to public administrators, ENGO4 and ENGO10 did share climate change knowledge with public administrators during the course of informal conversations while attending conferences or organising programmes together.

While providing training is considered one of ENGOs’ main activities, some ENGOs lack the capacity to perform such a function. As revealed by ENGO3, they have to collaborate with other ENGOs to educate the indigenous people about ethics, their land rights, and they have to train the technicians to collect data on wildlife and hunting activities. Apart from collaborating with other ENGOs, they also partnered with government agencies in educating the public about climate change. For instance, the MCCG partnered with the Malaysian Meteorological Services to prepare an educational information sheet for the general public. A series of public awareness programmes on energy efficiency and renewable energy was also launched in the late 1990s by an ENGO in collaboration with the Ministry of Energy, Communications, and Multimedia and Ministry of Education (Malaysia’s Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2000). Besides, Malaysia’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC [26]  stated that the ENGO had launched a three-and-a-half-year public awareness campaign titled ‘Mobilising Malaysians on Climate Change’ from 2001 to 2004. The ENGO also produced a Climate Change Action Plan as part of the project, which was forwarded to the government.

In brief, ENGOs play an educational role in climate change governance to increase public awareness and knowledge on climate change. They took the initiative to run various programmes to educate the public. They also cooperated with other institutions, including the government, corporations, schools and other ENGOs, to educate stakeholders on climate change.

3.4 Complementary role

The interviews revealed two sub-themes under the complementary role, namely, partnering with stakeholders and performing climate actions. The complementary role refers to activities performed by ENGOs in collaboration with stakeholders, such as the government, other NGOs, corporations, and communities, to complement the work of the government. The informants have noted that ENGOs could facilitate the government with increasing public awareness about climate change. Although the government is the leading organisation responsible for creating public awareness about climate change, ENGO1 and ENGO5 stressed that they also help the government spread the information on the causes and impacts of climate change and climate actions for mitigation. Apart from that, ENGOs collaborated with government agencies on public awareness campaigns such as peatland rehabilitation and fire prevention seminars, which were jointly organised by an ENGO and a state government, the Selangor State Forestry Department [27].

In addition to working with the government to create public awareness, ENGOs were also partnering with the government to implement climate mitigation and adaptation projects. ENGO6 stated that ENGOs have a role in collaborating with the government to work on climate change policy strategies. For instance, ENGO2 mentioned that some ENGOs collaborate with federal and state governments to work on specific areas, such as peatland conservation and management projects.

Moreover, ENGO10 partnered with the state government for a cycling campaign programme that promoted the use of bicycles as a means of transportation. As stated in Malaysia’s Third National Communication and Second Biennial Update to the UNFCCC [27], such campaigns had effectively exposed cycling benefits to around 13,500 people. In addition, they have organised various programmes such as the ‘no plastic bag programme’ with the local government. Apropos climate adaptation, ENGO9 mentioned that they work with the Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA) to provide food and basic needs assistance for the indigenous people affected by floods and the COVID-19 pandemic.

ENGOs have also partnered with the government to organise conferences such as the 11th International Greentech and Eco Products Exhibition and Conference Malaysia (IGEM2020). ENGO2 stated that the Ministry of Environment and Water (MEWA) invited the MCCG to become a conference partner. As an active coalition in climate change advocacy, the MCCG agreed to organise the Climate Action Forum in the IGEM2020. As for them, it was a good initiative by the government as they could voice their concerns about climate change at the forum.

Besides the government being a key partner, ENGOs also partnered with local and international NGOs and corporations. Most informants revealed that they collaborate with NGO networks at national, regional, and international levels in order to organise various campaigns and programmes for climate actions. In terms of affiliating with corporate organisations, ENGO7 and ENGO8 mentioned that their organisations had worked with corporate organisations on climate change and sustainability projects. However, ENGO7 noted that there was little chance to partner with local corporate organisations as they were not interested in the climate change projects proposed by ENGOs.

Under the sub-theme of complementing the government’s role in performing climate actions, ENGO6 indicated that they feel responsible for implementing climate mitigation and adaptation strategies as outlined in the National Policy on Climate Change 2009. Although the informants stated that implementing climate policy is the government’s responsibility, they believe that ENGOs could complement these actions through their voluntary activities such as recycling. For example, the ENGO10 campaign on reducing household consumption to decrease waste and the ENGO5 wetland conservation activities to help mitigate climate change represents the foregoing notion of a complementary relationship. Noting that everyone should implement climate action, they voluntarily perform them at their households and at their own cost to inspire others to follow suit. For example, ENGO7 performs climate actions for others to follow, such as using solar as renewable energy and using public transportation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Despite the Malaysian government’s want of an adaptation and resilience framework, ENGO9 promoted adaptation measures for vulnerable groups, primarily the indigenous demographic, who were affected by floods and droughts. ENGO9 worked conjointly with the JAKOA to provide basic needs and disaster response training to the Orang Asli during the COVID-19 pandemic. They assume that the training will help them face climate change and other stressors in the future.

In a complementary role, ENGOs work on a volunteer basis with other stakeholders in climate change governance to address climate change. For example, the government has asked ENGOs to assist them in attaining national carbon emissions reduction targets. They also complement the government in providing services to the public during extreme events.

3.5 Observational role

The term observational role is used to refer to government monitoring activities in addressing climate change issues. Based on this monitoring, ENGOs provide feedback to the government to improve climate actions and policy implementation. As an example, ENGO4 will inform the government on public concerns about climate change it obtains from surveys and will urge the government to take further action to address these concerns. Similarly, ENGO7 and ENGO10 reported that they observe climate change policy implementation and inform the government about problems on the ground to improve execution and policy. ENGO8 reported that they evaluate the government’s performance based on climate-change targets set in the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the Paris Agreement. Conversely, ENGO7 reported that they were unable to monitor all government activities due to a lack of resources.

In summary, ENGOs observe and evaluate the government performance in implementing climate change policy to achieve NDC targets. They give feedback to the government and urge the government to address the issues. However, they can only perform their monitoring activities within the limits of their capacity.

3.6 Innovational role

The term innovational role is used to refer to ENGO activities that engender strategies and tools for climate actions. Several innovations for promoting climate action were identified under this theme. The informant from ENGO8 shared that they innovate strategies by creating competition among cities and business networks to encourage climate actions among those stakeholders. There is evidence in Malaysia’s UNFCCC Biennial Update Report [28] that the ENGO organised a competition among municipalities and city councils to encourage renewable energy and climate actions. Two local governments who competed were recognised for their commitment to urban sustainability. Besides, they also innovate tools to measure carbon emission for corporate organisations.

Moreover, ENGO2 claimed that they innovate for climate action by promoting Local Agenda 21 in 1997 to encourage sustainable development at the local level in Malaysia. Other ENGOs, such as ENGO1 and ENGO6, indicated that they innovate recycling products through their communities’ recycling activities. For ENGO6, which has headquarters in Taiwan, the informant reported that they have an unlimited capacity to innovate recycled products with high-end technology performed at their headquarters. At the headquarters, the organisation managed to innovate recycled bottles, blankets, and construction materials, such as interlocking blocks, from recycled plastics and papers. They are interested in bringing high-end recycling technology to the country through entrepreneurial investment in Taiwan.

Apart from innovating strategies and tools for climate actions, ENGOs also innovate climate advocacy strategies. As explained by ENGO9, their ENGO worked in conjunction with other NGOs to innovate stakeholder networking, including communities, farmers, students, think tanks and human rights groups, in order to mobilise them into a climate movement in Malaysia. They called the network the Climate Emergency Coalition, which was initiated to pressure the government to declare a climate emergency and take a firm stance in addressing urgent climate issues. The ENGO4 informant believes that their innovation is their strategies to facilitate the consultation process at the international level. The informant added that they innovate original strategies to facilitate and moderate representatives from different organisations as they prepare to make policy recommendations during national dialogues. Most of the time, they managed to develop the policy recommendation within a short period during the dialogue session.

In summary, ENGOs have contributed to climate change governance through their innovation of various strategies and tools. Their innovation of strategies for climate actions and advocacy have helped promote sustainability and mobilise the climate movement in Malaysia. Meanwhile, their innovative products could help to reduce waste and generate income from recycled products.

ENGOs are politically neutral actors who perform their activities independently from the government. This study investigated the emerging role of ENGOs in domestic climate change governance in developing countries. ENGOs in developing countries such as Malaysia employ both direct and indirect strategies to participate in governance activities.

Although the ENGO plays a pivotal role in putting pressure on the government to engender desirable policy change, it is important that they do not undermine their potential to contribute to this objective. Based on the findings, the study suggests that ENGOs should focus on organisational capacity-building to enhance their potential as a governance actor in addressing climate change. Through organisational capacity building, ENGOs will have the ability to equip their organisations with adequate strategies and resources required to play significant roles in climate change governance.

Their participation could massively contribute to the effective governance of climate change. However, the degree to which an ENGO can effectively participate depends upon the government’s reception towards them, and although some government officials welcome their participation, others are less susceptible to their criticism, recommendations, and general influence. So, their ability to participate in the governance process occurs only to the degree authorities allow it to. The findings point to the need for the government’s support in engaging with the ENGOs to promote good climate change governance. The government should consider institutionalising ENGOs in the governance system to avert the problem of unreceptive attitudes among public officials towards the ENGOs.

In the case where a government is less open to ENGO participation, ENGOs adopt indirect and non-confrontational strategies that take place outside of the political arena. Nevertheless, there is an inherent potential for the antagonism in the ENGO-government relationship, which could impede participatory and multi-stakeholder governance. Hence, the nature of the partnership among multiple stakeholders, especially between the government and the ENGO, is crucial for bringing about participation and inclusiveness in climate change governance.