Challenges of poor surface water drainage and wastewater management in refugee camps

Challenges of poor surface water drainage and wastewater management in refugee camps

Ajibade O.O. Tota-Maharaj K.  Clarke B. 

University of Greenwich, Faculty of Engineering & Science, Department of Engineering Science, Medway Campus, Kent, ME4 4TB, England, UK

University of Surrey, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Sciences, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, England, UK

Corresponding Author Email: 
o.o.ajibade@greenwich.ac.uk
Page: 
53-60
|
DOI: 
10.18280/eesrj.030402
Received: 
| |
Accepted: 
| | Citation

OPEN ACCESS

Abstract: 

Since refugee camps are meant to be temporary and setting them up usually require urgency, little attention has been given to provision of surface water drainage and to a lesser extent wastewater management. As the population of refugees in these camps continues to grow, the effectiveness of drainage infrastructure continues to diminish. In addition, availability of sufficient safe drinking water and wastewater management have become difficult in the refugee camps across the world. The present situation in refugee camps across the world, such as flooding and outbreak of water-related diseases in South Sudan refugee camps, has made the need for sustainable approach to solving the problems to be very urgent. One sustainable way of solving the problems of flooding and outbreak of diseases in refugee camps is to provide effective drainage and wastewater infrastructure that ensures all the wastewater are properly collected, treated and reused for various purposes such as agriculture, drinking, laundry and other relevant uses. This paper therefore presents the current state of drainage and wastewater management in two refugee camps and propose low-cost technologies for stormwater management, wastewater collection, treatment and potential reuse, suitable for these refugee camps.

Keywords: 

Drainage, Health, Low-Cost Technologies, Refugees, Wastewater Management

1. Introduction
2. Surface Water Drainage Practices in Refugee Camps and Temporary Settlements
3. Proposed Technologies for Surface Water Drainage and Wastewater Management in Refugee Camps
4. Conclusions
  References

[1] Corcoran E., Nellemann, C., Baker E., Bos R., Osborn, D., Savelli H. (2010). Sick Water? The Central Role of Wastewater Management in Sustainable Development, United Nations Environment Programme, UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal., Norway. 

[2] Marques P.A.S.S., Rosa M.F., Mendes F., Collares P.M., Blanco J., Malato, S. (1997). Wastewater detoxification of organic and inorganic toxic compounds with solar collectors, Periodical, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 213-220. 

[3] Mara D. (2003). Domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries, Earthscan, 8–12 Camden High Street, London, NW1 0JH, UK.

[4] Kabra K., Chaudhary R., Sawhney R.L. (2004). Treatment of Hazardous Organic and Inorganic Compounds through Aqeous-Phase Photocatalysis: A Review, vol. 43, no. 24, pp. 7683-7696. 

[5] Alford-Daniel D., Allen C., Arne A.S., Angeloni M., Antheunissens E., Ashmore J., Baroni G., Bramucci G., Cameira J., Derkinderen S., Erb S., Etienne F., Federici G., Hodgkin M., Hoffman C., Kelly B., Motus N., Ringel S., Roberson K., Ryan K., Stone D., Vogel V., Vyas K., White P., Zarins J. (2015). Camp Management Toolkit, International Organization for Migration (IOM), Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) and UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR). 

[6] AMCA (2016). Mosquito-Borne Diseases, American Mosquito Control Association, United States of America. 

[7] Tota-Maharaj K. (2016). WASH in Emergencies Problem Exploration Report - Surface Water Drainage, Humanitarian Innovation Fund, ELRHA.

[8] Spencer S., Grant A.D., Piola P., Tukpo K., Okia M., Salignon P., Genevier C., Kiguli J., Guthmann J.P. (2004). Malaria in camps for internally displaced persons in Uganda: evaluation of an insecticide-treated bednet distribution programme, Periodical, vol. 98, no. 12, pp. 719-727. 

[9] Hershe C.L., Doocy S., Anderson J., Haskew C., Spiegel P., Moss W.J. (2011). Incidence and Risk Factors for Malaria, Pneumonia and Diarrhea in Children under 5 in UNHCR Refugee Camps: A retrospective study, Periodical, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 24.

[10] VOA Health Report (2012). Refugee Camps are Breeding Ground for Diseases, VOA. 

[11] Kamugisha C., Cairns K.L., Akim. C. (2003). An outbreak of measles in Tanzanian Refugee Camps, Periodical, vol. 187, pp. S58-S62. 

[12] CDC (2012). Measles — Horn of Africa, 2010–2011, Periodical, [Online], vol. 61, no. 34, pp. 30 Oct 2016-678 - 684. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6134a4.htm. [30 Oct 2016]. 

[13] CDC (2013). Investigation of Hepatitis E Outbreak Among Refugees — Upper Nile, South Sudan, 2012 – 2013, Periodical, [Online], vol. 62, no. 29, pp. 581-586. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6229a2.htm. [30 Oct 2016]. 

[14] Brusin S. (2000). The Communicable Disease Surveillance System in the Kosovar Refugee Camps in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia April - Aug 1999, Periodical, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 52-57. 

[15] Carter R.C. (ed) (2015). Water Sanitation and Hygiene in Humanitarian Contexts: Reflections on current practice, Key writings on WASH in international development.

[16] Parkinson J., Lüthi C., Walther D. (GIZ). (2014). Sanitation21 - A Planning Framework for Improving City-wide Sanitation Services. IWA, Eawag-Sandec, GIZ.

[17] Ersel M. (2015). Water and sanitation Standards in Humanitarian Action, Turk J Emerg Med, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 27-33. 

[18] Bilak A. Caterina M., Charron G., Crozet S., Díaz-Leal L.R., Foster F., Ginnetti J., Giorgi J., Glatz A., Guyon K., Howard C., Kesmaecker-Wissing, M., Kilany, S., Klos, J., Kok, F., McCallin, B., Pagot, A., Rushing, E., Spurrell, C., Swain, M., Turner, W., Walicki, N., Yonetani, M. (2015). Global Overview 2015 - People internally displaced by conflict and violence, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Norwegian Refugee Council Chemin de Balexert 7–9 CH-1219 Châtelaine (Geneva). 

[19] ECHACP (2016). ECHO FACTSHEET - Central African Republic, European Commission Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection. 

[20] UNHCR (2016a). CAR Emergency - Case Study of the Central African Republic Crisis Hardship and Resilience, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 

[21] Google Maps (2016a). Location of Central African Republic on the Continent of Africa.

[22] Google Maps (2016b). Location of Central African Republic and its neighbouring countries on the continent of Africa.

[23] Varma A. (2011). The Creation of South Sudan: Prospects and Challenges, Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi. 

[24] Berry L. (2015). Sudan a country study, 5th edn, Federal Research Division Library of Congress, U.S.A. 

[25] UNHCR (2016b). 60,000 flee South Sudan's recent violence to nearby countries, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 

[26] Google Maps (2016c). Location of South Sudan on the continent of Africa

[27] Google Maps (2016d). Illustration of migration of refugees from neighbouring countries into South Sudan.

[28] Laccino L. (2014). World Refugee Day 2014: Living Conditions in the Largest Refugee Camps, International Business Times. 

[29] Oxfam (2014). Technical Brief Hepatitis E Outbreak Response, Oxfam, Humanitarian Innovation Fund.

[30] McDonald A. (2012). South Sudan’s refugee camps flooded – in pictures, The Guardian. [Online]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2012/sep/27/south-sudan-refugee-camps-flooded.

[31] Winblad U. (1997). Towards an Ecological Approach to Sanitation, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Department for Natural Resources and the Environment S-105 25 Stockholm, Sweden. 

[32] Woods-Ballard B., Kellagher R., Martin P., Jefferies, C., Bray, R., Shaffer, P. (2011). The SuDS Manual, CIRIA, Classic House, 174–180 Old Street, London EC1V 9BP. 

[33] Greater Dublin Strategic Drainage Study (2016). Filter Drains, Environmental Management Policy.

[34] Ministry of Roads and Bridges Government of South Sudan (2013). South Sudan Low Volume Roads Design Manual, Government of South Sudan. 

[35] Cambridge SuDS Design and Adoption Guide (2016). Swales and Filter Strips, Technical Report edn, Cambridge SuDS Design and Adoption Guide, UK. 

[36] Udale-Clarke, H. (2016). The Multiple Benefits of the new CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015, Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), UK, [Online]. Available: https://www.ice.org.uk/disciplines-and-resources/case-studies/the-benefits-of-the-new-cira-suds-manual-2015 [2016, November/05]. 

[37] Auckland Council (2016). Tree Pits Construction Guide, Stormwater device information series edn, Auckland Council. 

[38] IRG (2007). South Sudan Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment - Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment, International Resources Group, 1211 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20036. 

[39] Scholz M. (2015). Sustainable Drainage Systems, Water vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 2272-2274. DOI: 10.3390/w7052272

[40] Chu W., Ng F. (2000). Upgrading the conventional grease trap using a tube settler, Environment International, vol. 26, pp. 17-22. 

[41] FEBCO Company (2007). Grease traps (new products) Reeves Journal, Vol.87 (3), p.86 (1).

[42] City of Carrollton Grease Interceptor Sizing Requirements (2012). Guidance Document for Sizing and Installation of Grease Traps and Interceptors, Carrollton, Texas, USA.

[43] Tilley E., Ulrich L., Luethi C., Reymond P., Zurbruegg C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies, IWA Publishing. 

[44] Fewkes A., Butler D. (2000). Simulating the performance of rainwater collection and reuse systems using behavioural models, Building Services Research and Technology, vol. 21, pp. 99-106, CIBSE.

[45] Gur E. and Spuhler D. (2016). Rainwater Harvesting (Rural), Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. [Online] Available from: http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/water-sources/hardware/precipitation-harvesting/rainwater-harvesting-r. [28 Dec. 2016].

[46] Zech E., Spuhler D., Miso A., Factura H. (2016). SSWM Case Study XU Ecoville – an example of planning and implementing SSWM approaches in the Philippines. [Online]. Available from: http://www.sswm.info/content/sswm-case-study-xu-ecoville-–-example-planning-and-implementing-sswm-approaches-philippines. [28 Dec. 2016].

[47] Flores A., Buckley C., Fenner R. (2008). Selecting Wastewater Systems for Sustainability in Developing Countries, 11th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 2008. 

[48] Kadlec R.H., Wallace S.D. (2009). Treatment Wetlands, 2nd edn, CRC Press. 

[49] Vymazal J. (2010). Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Full, no. 2, pp. 530-549. 

[50] Masi F., Bresciani R. (2016). Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetlands, Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. [Online]. Available from: http://www.sswm.info/category/step-nawatech/m1-nawatech-basics/appropriate-technologies/appropriate-technologies/conte-13. [28 Dec. 2016].